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THE 



PRINCIPLES 



OP 



LATIN GRAMMAR; 



COMPRISING THE SUBSTANCE OF THE MOST APPROVED 
GRAMMARS EXTANT, WITH AN 



APPENDIX. 



USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 



By Rev. PETER BULLIONS, D. D. 

PROFESSOR OF LANGUAGES IN THE ALBANY ACADEMY J AUTHOR OF THE SERIES 

OF GRAMMARS, GREEK, LATIN, AND ENGLISH, ON THE 

SAME PLAN, ETC. ETC. 



FOURTEENTH EDITION. 



NEW-YORK : 



PRATT, WOODFORD & COMPANY, 

159 PEARL STREET. 
/1846. 






■? *v 1 



?*"&« 



h 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1846, by 

Rev. Peter Bullions, D. D. 

in the Clerk's Office of the Northern District of New-York, 



PREFACE. 



In the study of any language, the foundation of success 
must be laid in a thorough acquaintance with its principles. 
This being once attained, future progress becomes easy 
and rapid. To the student of language, therefore, a good 
Grammar, which must be his constant companion, is of all 
his books the most important, Such a work, to be really 
valuable, ought to be simple in its arrangement and style, so 
as to be adapted to the capacity of youth, for whose use it is 
designed ; comprehensive, and accurate, so as to be a suffi- 
cient and certain guide in the most difficult as well as in easy 
cases ; and its principles and rules should be rendered fami- 
liar by numerous examples and exercises. 

The fundamental principles are nearly the same in all lan- 
guages. So far as Grammar is concerned, the difference lies 
chiefly in the minor details — in the forms and inflections of 
their words, and in the modes of expression peculiar to each, 
usually denominated idioms. It would seem, therefore, to 
be proper, in constructing Grammars for different languages, 
that the principles, so far as they are the same, should be ar- 
ranged in the same order, and expressed as nearly as possible 
in the same words. Where this is carefully done, the study 
of the Grammar of one language becomes an important aid in 
the study of another ; — an opportunity is afforded of seeing 
wherein they agree, and wherein they differ, and a profitable 
exercise is furnished in comparative or general grammar. 
But when a Latin Grammar is put into the hands of the stu- 
dent, differing widely in its arrangement or phraseology from 
the English Grammar which he had previously studied, and 
afterwards a Greek Grammar different from both, not only is 
the benefit derived from the analogy of the different langua- 
ges in a great measure lost, but the whole subject is made to 
appear intolerably intricate and mysterious. In order to re- 
medy this evil, I resolved, more than ten years ago, to pre- 
pare a series of grammars, English, Latin and Greek, ar- 
ranged in the same order, and expressed in as nearly the 



IV PREFACE. 

same words as the peculiarities of the languages would per- 
mit. In the prosecution of this purpose, a Greek and an 
English grammar have been already published, and the Latin, 
which completes the series, is now ready to follow them. 

The work here presented to the public, is upon the foun- 
dation of Adam's Latin Grammar, so long and so well 
known as a text book in this country. Since the first publi- 
cation of that excellent work, however, now more than fifty 
years ago, great advances have been made in the science of 
philology, both in Germany and Britain, and many improve- 
ments have been introduced in the mode of instruction, 
none of which appear in that w T ork. The object of the pre- 
sent undertaking was, to combine with all that is excellent 
in the work of Adam, the many important results of sub- 
sequent labors in this field; to supply its defects; to bring 
the whole up to that point which the present state of classi- 
cal learning requires, and to give it such a form as to render 
it a suitable part of the series formerly projected. In accom- 
plishing this object, I have availed myself of every aid within 
my reach, and no pains has been spared to render this 
work as complete as possible in every part. My acknow- 
ledgements are due for the assistance derived from the excel- 
lent works of Grant, Crombie, Zumpt, Andrews & Stoddart, 
and many others, on the whole or on separate parts of this 
undertaking; and also for many hints kindly furnished by 
distinguished teachers in this country. With the exception 
of a few pages, the whole of this work has been written 
anew. The additions and improvements made in every part, 
it is impossible here to specify. The intelligent teacher 
will discover these, and judge of them for himself. In the 
typography of the work, neatness and accuracy have been 
aimed at, and, it is hoped, in a good degree attained. As in 
the other grammars, the rules and leading parts which should 
be first studied, are printed in larger type ; and the filling 
up of this outline is comprised in observations and notes un- 
der them, made easy of reference by the sections and num- 
bers prefixed. The whole is now committed, together with 
the rest of the series, to the judgment of an intelligent pub- 
lic, in the hope that something has been done to smooth the 
path of the learner in the successful prosecution of his stu- 
dies, and to subserve the interests both of English and Classi- 
cal literature in this country. 

Albany Academy, Aug. 20th, 1841. 



INDEX. 



A. 

PAGE 

Ablative, meaning of, 10 

governed by nouns, 225 

by adject ves .. . 226 

by comp. degree, 227 

by verbs, 228 

by adverbs,.. ,. . 242 

by passive, verbs 234 

variously, 229 

Accidents of the noun, 8 

Accusative, meaning of 10 

governed by verbs 223 

by passive verbs, 234 

by prepositions. . ,243, 244 

variously, 225 

and genitive, 229 

and dative 231 

and accusative 232 

and ablative 233 

Adjectives, 44 

of first and second decl. 45 

of third, 47 

irregular, 51 

exercises on, 53 

comparison of, 59 

Rules for, 60 

irregular, &c 61 

derivation of 63 

numeral, 53 

cardinal, 54 

ordinal, 57 

construction of, 197 

Adverbs, signification of,. . 185 

derivation of, 186 

comparison of, 187 

construction of, 241 

cases governed by,. . . . 242 

Analysis or resolution, .... 269 

Apposition, 196 

Archaism, 266 

Arrangement, Latin, 266 



B. 

PAGE 

Beginners, directions for,. • 270 
C. 

Case, 9 

Synopsis of government of, 194 

Csesural pause, 293 

Cause, manner and instru- 
ment, 236 

Circumstances, construc- 
tion of, 235 

of limitation, 235 

of cause, manner, &c. 236 

of place, 237 

of time, 239 

of measure, 24P 

of price, 241 

Concord of, 196 

Conjugation of, 100 

First, 110 

irregular, 156 

Second, .7.. 119 

irregular, 157 

Third, 127 

irregular, 160 

Fourth, 136 

irregular, . 168 

1st Periphrastic, .... 152 

2d do. 153 

Conjunctions, 192 

construction of, .... 264 

Consonants, 2 

Construing, Rules for, 271 

D. 

Dative, meaning of, 10 

governed by nouns, .... 215 

by adjectives, 215 

by verbs, 217 

by impersonals,. . . 220 

by the pass, voice, 234 

variously, 222 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Datives two, gov'd by verbs, 222 
Declension, Rules for, .... 10, 11 

First, 12 

Greek nouns in, 13 

Exercises on. ... 14 

Second, 15. 

Exceptions in.. . 17 

Greek nouns in, 18 

Exercises on,. . . 18 

Third, 19 

Exercises on,. . . 23 

Genders in,.... 23 

Genitive of, 24 

Exceptions in,. . 26 

Greek nouns in, 30 

Fourth, 30 

Exceptions in,. . 31 

Exercises on,.. . 32 

Fifth, 32 

Exercises on,. . . 33 

Deponent verbs, 144 

irregular, 169 

Derivatives and compounds, 

quantity of, 289 

special rules for, 288 

E. 

Ellipsis, 265 

Enallage, 265 

Etymology, 6 

F. 

Feet, simple, 290 

compound, 291 

isochronous, 291 

G. 

Gender of, . . . 8 

Observations on, ... 9 

Genitive, meaning of, 10 

gov'd by nouns, 207 

by adjectives,. . . 210 

by verbs, 213 

by passives, .... 234 

variously, 214 

Gerunds and Supines, 99 

construction of, 260 

Gerundives, 98 

construction of,. . . . 262 
H. 

Hellenism, 266 

Hyperbaton, 266 

I. 

Increment of nouns, 268 

of the 2d decl.. . 279 I 



PAGE 

Increment of the 3d decl.. . 279 

of the plural . . 280 

of the verb,.'... 281 

Interjections, 191 

construction of, 225 

Irregular nouns, 3-1 

adjectives, 51 

comparison, 6i 

Verbs, 170 

L. 

Letters, 1 

Limitation, circumstances of 235 
M. 

Marks and characters, 2 

Measure, circumstances of. 241 

Metre, 293 

different kinds of, ... . 294 

Iambic, 294 

Trochaic, 295 

Anapaestic, 295 

Dactylic, 296 

Choriambic, 297 

Ionic, 298 

Metres, compound, 299 

Metres, combination of, in 

Horace, 301 

Metrical Key to Odes of 

Horace, 302 

Moods, 81 

Indie, tenses of, 85 

construction of, . . 246 

Subjunctive, tenses of, 89 

construction of, ... 246 

with conjunctions, 247 

with relative, . . . 248 

used for imperative, 84 

Imperative, tenses of, 92 

construction of, . . . 253 

Infinitive, tenses of, . 93 

construction of, . . . 253 

without a subject, 254 

with a subject, . 256 

N. 

Negatives, construction of,. 241 

Nominative, meaning of,. . 10 

construction of, 203 

after the verb,. . . . 205 

Notation of numbers, 56 

Nouns, 7 

Accidents of, 8 

irregular, 34 

defective, 39 



INDEX. 



Ttt 



PAGE. 

Noons, redundant 40 

Syntax of,'. 207 

increment of, 278 

Number, 8 

Numeral adjectives, 53 

O. 

Orthography, 1 

P. 

Parsing, directions for, .... 273 

Participles of, 97 

construction of,... 258 

case absolute, .... 259 

Parts of speech, 7 

Person, 65 

Person, and number of,. . . . 96 

Place, circumstances of,... 237 

Pleonasm, 265 

Prepositions of, 188 

in composition, 190 

inseparable, , 191 

governing the accusa- 
tive,. . 243 
the ablative, 243 
the ace. and 

ablative, 244 
in composi- 
tion, 244 

Price, circumstances of, 241 

Pronouns, Personal, 64 

Adjective, 67 

Possessive, 67 

Demonstrative, 68 

Definite, 71 

Relative, 71 

construction of, . . . 200 

case of, 202 

Interrogative, 72 

Indefinite, 73 

Patrial, 73 

compound, ......... 73 

Pronunciation 3 

Prosody, 276 

Figures of, 299 

Punctuation, * 3 

Q. 

Quantity, of, 276 

General rules for, . . . 276 

Special rules for, . . . 278 

of penult syllables, . 282 

■ of final syllables, ... 284 

R. 

Resolution or analysis, .... 261 

Examples of, 297 



S. 

PAGE. 

Scanning, 299 

Stanza, 301 

Supines of, 99 

Construction of, .... 263 

Syllables, 5 

Syntax, 193 

General principles of, 193 

of cases, Synopsis of, 194 

Parts of, 196 

of the Noun, 207 

of the verb, 245 

Figures of. 265 

T.' 

Tensesof, * 84 

of the indicative, ... 85 

subjunctive,.. 89 

imperative, . . 92 

infinitive, .... 93 

participles,... 97 

Active how formed,. 102 

Passive, how formed, 104 

Connexion of, 245 

Terminations, table of,.... 11 

Time, circumstances of,... 239 

V. 

Verb, Active, Neuter, 76, 77 

Different kinds of, . . 78 

Inflection of, 79 

Voices, of, 80 

Moodsof, 81 

Tensesof, 84 

how formed, .... 102 

Regular, conjugation of, 100 

1st conj. Active, . 110 

Exercises on.. 113 

1st conj. Passive,. 114 

Exercises on,. 117 

2d conj. Active,.. 119 

Exercises on,. 122 

2d conj. Passive,. 122 

Exercises on,. 125 

3d conj. Active,. . 127 

Exercises on,. 131 

3d conj. Passive,. 131 

Exercises on,. 135 

4th conj. Active, . 136 

Exercises on,. 139 

4th conj. Passive, 140 

Exercises on,. 142 

Deponent, 1st conj... 144 

2d do .. 145 

3d do .. 147 



viii 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Verb, deponent, 4th do .. 148 

Exercises on,. 149 

Verbs, Neuter-passives. . . . . 150 

compound, 154 

irregular in perf. and 

Sup 155 

Irregular, 170 

Sum, 105 

Exercises on, 109 

Defective, 178 

Impersonal, 180 

Exercises on,. 182 

Redundant, 183 

Derivatives, 183 

Frequentatives, . 184 

Inceptives, 184 



PAGE. 

Verbs, Desideratives, 185 

Diminutives,... 185 
construction of, with 

Nom 203 

Special rules for, 204 

Syntax of, 245 

Increment of, 28 1 

Versification, 290 

Vocative, meaning of, 10 

construction of,.. 225 

Voice, 80 

Vowels, 1 

Vowel sounds, table of, ... . 4 

W. 

Words, 6 



CONTENTS OF THE APPENDIX. 

I. Roman computation of time, 304 

II. Roman Names, 307 

III. Divisions of the Roman people, 308 

IV. Division of the Roman civil officers, 309 

V. The Roman Army, 199 

VI. Roman Money, Weights and Measures, 310 

VII. Different ages of Roman Literature, 312 



ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN. IX 

ENGLISH PKONUNCIATION OF LATIN. 

For reasons stated in the note, § 2, the continental pronunciation of 
the Latin language, as presented in that section, is considered the 
best. But since there are many who prefer the English, or Walke- 
rian pronunciation, a brief statement of the principles by which it is 
regulated is here introduced. In doing this it is necessary to state, 
and for the learner always to bear in mind, that the English accentu- 
ation and vowel sounds have nothing to do with the quantity of the 
syllables as established by the rules of Latin prosody. These indeed 
are often directly opposed to each other. A vowei which Dy the rules 
of English orthoepy is long, having both the accent and the long Eng- 
lish sound, is short in Latin; as, pa-ter, Be -us. On the other hand, 
a syllable that is short, being without the accent and having the short 
English sound, is long in Latin; as, am'-a-ba-mus^ mori'-e-ba-tis. 
When, therefore, a vowel is said to have the long sound, or the short 
sound — to be accented or unaccented, nothing is affirmed respecting 
the quantity of the syllable, as long or short. Here indeed there is 
an incongruity, but it is inseparable from the system. 

According to this mode of pronunciation, the sound of a vowel or 
diphthong depends entirely on two things; viz., the accent and the 
place of the vowel in the syllable. Again, the division of words into 
syllables depends, in a great measure, on the place of the accents; 
and that again on the quantity of the penult syllable. Hence to pre- 
sent this matter fully and properly, we must reverse this order, and 
consider, 

I. The quantity of the penult syllables. 

II. The accent. 

in. The division of words into syllables; and 

IV. The sounds of the letters in their combinations. 

SCjp For the division of letters into vowels and consonants, the com- 
bination of the former into diphthongs, and the division of the latter 
into mutes, liquids, &c; as also for the meaning of the terms mono- 
syllable, dissyllable. &c, penult and antepenult, and the marks for 
long, short, and accented S) r llables, see § 1. 

mm I. THE QUANTITY OF PENULT SYLLABLES. 

For quantity in general, see the Rules, §§ 154-161; and particu- 
larly for penult syllables, §§ 156-159. The following are general, 
being applicable to other syllables as well as the penult, and are of 
extensive application: 

1. A vowel before another vowel is short; as, via, dens. 

2. A vowel before two consonants, or a double conso- 
nant is long by position ; as, arma, fallo, axis. 

3. A vowel before a mute and a liquid, (I and r,) is com- 
mon; i. e., either long or short; as, voliicris, or volucris. 

4. A diphthong is always long ; as, Ccesar, aurum. 

Note. When the quantity of the penult is determined by any of 
these rules, it is not marked; otherwise it is marked. 



3t ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN. 

II. THE ACCENT. 

Accent is a particular stress of voice laid on a particular 
syllable of a word, and marked ( ' ) ; as, pa'-ter, aa'-i-mus. 
Its place is on the penult or antepenult. 

When a word has more accents than one, the last is called the pri- 
mary accent, the one preceding it the secondary, marked ("); pre- 
ceding that is often a third, marked ('" )? and sometimes even a 
fourth, marked ( "" ) j and all of them subject to the same rules; as 
follows: 

RULES. 

1. Words of two syllables have the accent on the first or 
penult; as, pa'-ter, mu'-sa, au'-rum. 

2. Words of more than two syllables, when the penult 
is long, have the accent on the penult ; when the penult is 
short they have the accent on the antepenult; as, a-mi'cus, 
dom'-i-nus. 

3. When the enclitics que, ve? ne, are added to a word, 
the two words are considered as one, and it is accented 
accordingly ; as, pa-ter'-que, am"-i-cus''7ie, dom"-i-nus'-ve. 

4. If only two syllables precede the primary accent, the 
secondary accent is placed on the first; as, dom"-i-no'rum. 

5. If three or four syllables precede the primary accent, 
the secondary is placed sometimes on the first and some- 
times on the second ; as, tol"-e-ra-bil'-i-us, de-mon" stra- 
ban'-tur. 

6. Some words which have four syllables before the pri- 
mary accent, and all that have more than four have a third 
accent ; and in longer words even a fourth; as, pab'"-u-la"- 
ti-o'-nis, pab" " -u-la" ' -ti-on"-i-bus' -que. 

III. THE DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES. 

In Latin every word has as many syllables as there are 
separate vowels or diphthongs. Hence the following 

rules. 

1. Two vowels coming together and not forming a diph- 
thong, must be divided; as, Be'-us, su'-us, au'-re-us. 

2. A single consonant, or a mute and a liquid* between 
the last two vowels of a word, or between any two unac- 
cented vowels, is joined to the last; as, pa'-TER, al'-a-CER, 
aZ-a-CRis, toV ' -e-Rh-bil' -i-us , per J ""e-GRi-nd"-ti-d'-ms. 

Exc. But tib-i and sib-i join it to the first. 

* The liquids are / and r. 



ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION Of LATIN. xi 

3. A single consonant or a mute and a liquid before an 
accented vowel, is joined to that vowel, and so also is a sin- 
gle consonant after it, except in the penult; as, z-TiN'-e-ra, 
ho 31 '-t -n es. 

Exc. I, A sin-^e consomnt, or a mute and a liquid, after a, e, 0, 
accented, and followed by e or i before a Vowel, are joined to the lat- 
ter; as, so-ci-us, ra-m-us, do-cn-o, pa-TRi-us. 

Exc. 2. A single consonant, or a mute and a liquid after u. accent- 
ed, must be joined to the following vowel; as, mii-i.i-er, lu-Ti-or, 

lu-BRI-CUS. 

4. Any two consonants, except a mute and a liquid com- 
ing before or after an accented vowel; and also a mute and 
a liquid after an accented vowel, (the penult and the excep- 
tions to Rule 3 excepted,) must be divided; as, tem-por'-i* 
bus, lec'-tum, tern' -pd -rum, met'~ri-cus> 

Also gl, tl, and often cl, after the penultimate vowel, or before the 
Vowel of an accented syllable; as At-las, Jlt-lan'-ti-des, ec-lec'-ta. 

5. If three consonants come between the vowels of any 
two syllables, the last two, if a mute and a liquid, are joined 
to the latter vowel; otherwise, the last only; as, eon'-tra % 
am"-pli-a'-mt; comp'-tus* re-demp'-tor, 

6. A compound word is resolved into its constituent parts 
if the first part ends with a consonant: as, AB-es'-se, sub'-z- 
it, iN'-t-tur, ciRCinvi'-a-g-o. But if the first part ends with 
a vowel, it is divided like a simple word; as, BEf'-e-ro, ml'" 

I'gO, FR&s'-to. 

These rules are useful here, only as a guide to the pronunciation in 
the Walkerian mode, the vowel sounds being always different when 
they end a syllable, and when followed by a consonant; thus, dil'- 
i-go and prces'4o would be pronounced very differently if divided thus, 
di'-ii-go andprce'-sto, though the quantity and accent would be the 
same in both. It is therefore manifest that in order to correct pro- 
nunciation in this mode it is necessary to be familiar with, and ready 
in applying the rules of syllabification. 

IV. OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 

1. Of the sound of the Vowels. 

1. Every accented vowel at the end of a syllable has the 
long English sound ; as in the words fate, me, pine, no, 
tube; thus, pa'-ter, de'-dit, vi'-vus, to'-tus, tu'-ba. Ty'-rus* 

2. At the end of an unaccented syllable, e, o, and u, have 
nearly the same sound as when accented, but are sounded 
shorter; as re'-te, vo'-lo, ma'-nu; a has the sound of a in 
father; as, mu'-sa, e-pis'-to-la. 

* y ha* the sound of »' in th« same situation. 



Xil ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN. 

1, ending an unaccented syllable, has always its long 
sound in the following positions : 

1st. In the end of a word ; as, dom'-i-ni* Except in tib»i 
and sib-i, in which final i sounds like short e. 

2d. In the first syllable of a word (the second of which 
is accented,) either when it stands alone before a conso- 
nant ; as, i-do'-ne-us, or ends the syllable before a vowel ; 
&s,Ji-e''bam. 

In all other situations at the end of an unaccented sylla- 
ble not final, i has an obscure sound resembling short e; 
as, nob'-i-lis, rap'-i*dus, Ti-d$'-lis, &c 

3. When a syllable ends with a consonant, its vowel has 
the shoit English sound, as in fat, .met, pin, not, tub, sym~ 
bol; thus, mag'-nus, reg'-num,fin'-go, hoc, sub, cyg'-nus. 

Exc. Es at the end of a word, has the sound of the English word 
ease; asji'-des, ig'-nes. 

2. Of the sound of the Diphthongs, 

M and ce are pronounced as e in the same situation ; as, 
&'-tas, ccet'-e-ra, pce'-na, cBs'-trum. 

Au is pronounced like aw," — eu like long u, — and ei, not 
followed by another vowel, like long i; as, au'-di-o, eu'-ge, hei. 

Exc, In Greek proper names au are separated; as, Men"~e-la'-us> 

Note, ua, ue, ui, uo, and uu, in one syllable after q, g, s, are not 
properly diphthongs, but the u takes the sound of w. § 1, Obs. 2. 

After g and s these vowels are often pronounced separately, or in 
different syllables; as, ar'-gu-o, su'-a, su'-i, su'-us. 

Exc. Ui in cui and huic, has the sound of i long. 

3. Of the sound of the Consonants. 

The consonants are in general pronounced in Latin as in 
English. The following may be noticed. 

C before e, t, y, ce, ce, has the sound of s; as., ce-do, ct-vis, cyg'« 
nus, Cce'-sar, cce'-na; before a, o, u, I, r, and at the end of a syl- 
lable it has the sound offe; as, Ca-to, con-tra, cur, Clo-di-us, Cri-to. 

Ch, generally has the sound of k; as, char'-ta, chor'-da, chro-ma. 

G before e, i, y, ce, ce, has its soft sound like j; as, ge'-nus, re'-gis; 
also before another g soft; as, agger. In other situations it is hard; 
as in the English words, bag, go. 

Ch and ph before th in the beginning of a word, are not sounded; 
as, Chthonia, Phthia; also when a word begins with mn, gn, tm, ct, 
pt, ps, the first letter is silent, or but slightly sounded; as mne-mo$'- 
y-ne, gna-vus, tme-sis, Cte-si-as. Ptol-e-mce'-us, psal'*lo. 

Other consonants in their combinations resemble so closely thrir 
sounds in English words, that further illustration is unnecessary. 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



Latin Grammar is the art of speaking or wri- 
ting the Latin language with propriety. 

It is divided into four parts ; namely, Orthogra- 
phy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 



PART FIRST. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography teaches the nature and power of 
letters, and the correct method of spelling words. 



§ 1. OF LETTERS. 

1. A Letter is a character representing a particular sound of the 
human voice. 

2. The Latin Alphabet consists of twenty-five letters, the same in 
name and form as the English, but without the w. 

Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants. 

OF VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS. 

3. A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple sound. The 
vowels in Latin are six, viz : a, e, t, o, w, y. 

4. The union of two vowels in one sound is called a Diphthong. 
If the sound of both vowels be distinctly heard, it is called a Proper 
Diphthong ; if not, it is called an Improper Diphthong. 

5. The Proper Diphthongs in Latin are three, viz : au, eu } ety 
as, audio, euge, hei. 

6. The Improper Diphthongs are two, viz : ae and oe. These are 
often written together ; Thus, «, ce ; and are pronounced as simple 6. 

1 



i ORTHOGRAPHY- § 1 

Obs. 1. Ai and ox are found as diphthongs in proper names from 
the Greek ; as, Maia, Troia. 

Obs. 2. After g, and q, and sometimes after s, u before another vow- 
el in the same syllable does not form a diphthong with it, but is to be 
regarded as an appendage of the preceding consonant, having nearly 
the force of w, as in the English words, linguist, quick, persuade; 
thus lingua sanguis, qui, qua, quod, quum, suadeo,are pronounced as 
if written lingwa, sangwis, kwi, kwce, kwod, kwum, swadeo. 

Obs. 3. Two vowels standing together in different syllables, pro- 
nounced in quick succession, resemble the diphthong in sound, and, 
among the poets, are often run together into oue syllable -, thus de-in, 
de-inde, pro-inde, &c. in two and three syllables are pronounced in 
one and two dein, deinde, proinde. Cui and huic, properly two sylla- 
bles are always contracted into one. So also, ui in such words from 
the Greek, as Harpuia. 

OF CONSONANTS. 

7. A Consonant is a letter that cannot be sounded without the 
help of a vowel as p, b, pronounced pe, be. 

8. Of the Consonants, eight are called mutes, Viz. p, b, t, d, c, k, 
q, and g ; so called because they stop the passage of the voice, as b 
in sub. 

9. Four are liquids, viz. I, m, n, r, because they easily flow into 
other sounds. 

10. Three are double Consonants, viz. x, z, and j ; of these, x is 
equivalent to cs, gs, or ks ; z to ds, or ts and j to dg. 

Obs. 4. Though j is sounded by us as a double consonant, equiva- 
lent to dg, yet anciently it seems to have been more nearly allied to 
a vowel, and was represented by i; thus, ejus pejus, &c. were writ- 
ten eius, peius, &c. In a similar manner, u and v were represented 
by the same letter, viz. v. 

11. The letter s represents a sibilant or hissing sound. The ft is only 
an aspirate and denotes a rough breathing : In prosody, it is not re- 
garded as a consonant. 

12. The letters k, y, and z, are used only in words derived from 
the Greek. 

MARKS AND CHARACTERS 

13. The marks and characters used in Latin Grammar or in writing 
Latin, are the following : 

^ Placed over a vowel shews it to be short. 



§2 



FR0NUNCIAT10K* 



- Placed over a vowel shews it to be long. 

\*L Placed over a vowel shews it to be short or long. 

• • Is called Diceresis, and shows that the vowel over which it is 
placed does not form a diphthong with the preceding vowel, but be- 
longs lo a different syllable, as air pronounced a-er. 

y\ The circumflex shews that the syllable over which it stands has 
been contracted, and is consequently long as nuntidrunt for nuntiavc- 
runt , dimicdssent for dimic avis sent. 

> The grave accent is sometimes placed over particles and adverbs 
to distinguish them from other words consisting of the same letters ; 
as quod a conjunction, " that/ 7 to distinguish it from quod, a rela- 
tive, " which.' 7 

' Apostrophe, is written over the place of a vowel cut off from 
the end of a word as men' for mene. 

PUNCTUATION. 

14. The different divisions of a sentence are marked by certain 
characters called Points. 

The modern punctuation in Latin is the same as in English. The 
marks employed, are the Comma (,); Semicolon (;); Colon (:) j Period 
(.); Interrogation (?); Exclamation (!). 

Obs. The only mark of punctuation used by the ancients, was a 
point, (.) which denoted pauses of a different length, according as it 
stood at the top, the middle, or the bottom of the line, that at the 
top denoting the shortest, and that at the bottom, the longest pause. 



$2. PRONUNCIATION.* 

The pronunciation of the Latin language prevalent among 
the nations of continental Europe, is greatly preferable to 

* The ancient pronunciation of the Latin language cannot now be certainly ascer- 
tained. The variety of pronunciation in different nations arises from a tendency in all 
to assimilate it in some measure to their own. But of all varieties, that of the English, — 
certainly the farthest of any from the original,— is, in our opinion, decidedly the worst; 
not only from its intricacy and want of simplicity, but especially from its conflicting 
constantly with the settled quantity of the language. In English, every accented sylla- 
ble is lomr, and every unaccented one is short. When, therefore, according to the 
rules of English accentuation, the accent falls on a short syllable in a Latin \yord r or 
does not fall on a Ions one, in either case, it necessarily leads to a false quantity; and 
to this perhaps more than any thing else, is to be attributed the acknowledged deficien- 
cy of classical scholars among us in this respect. For the English orthoepy of the 
Latin language, see P. IX. 



4 PRONUNCIATION. § 2 

the English^ both because it harmonizes better with the 
quantity of the language, as settled by the rules of Prosody, 
and because, by giving one simple sound to each vowel, dis- 
tinguishing the short and the long only by the duration of 
sounds, it is much more simple. The sound of the vowels 
as pronounced alone or at the end of a syllable, is exhibited 
in the following 

TABLE OF VOWEL AND DIPHTHONGAL SOUNDS. 

Short a sounds like a in Jehovah as amat. 

Long a like a in father, as fama. 

Short e like e in met, as petere. 

Long e like ey in they, as docere. 

Short 1 like i in uniform, as unttas. 

Long I like i in machine, as pmus. 

Short 6 like o in polite, as indoles. 

Long 6 like o in go, as pono. 

Short u like u in popular, as populus. 

Long u like u in full, or pure, as tuba, usus. 

aeor ae ) ri . 2 ( Pagan. 

oeoroei hke e ^ m the ^ as j Phoebus. 

au like ou in our, as aurum. 

eu like eu in feud, as eurus. 

ei like i in ice, as hei. 

Obs. 1. The vowels a and e have the some sound in all 
situations. 

Obs. 2. The sound of e, o, and u, is slightly modified 
when followed by a consonant in the same syllable, and is 
the same whether the syllable is long or short. Thus 
modified, 



i sounds like 


i 


in sit, 


as mlttit. 


o like 





in not, 


as poterat, forma. 


u like 


u 


in tub, 


as fructus. 



Note. For the sound of u, before another vowel, after g, q, and 
sometimes s-, See § 1, Obs. 2 

Obs, 3. The consonants are pronounced generally as in the Eng- 
lish language. C, and g, are hard as in the words cat, and got r be- 
fore a, o, and u; and soft like 5, and j, before e, i, i/; «, and ce. 

Obs. 4. T, and c, following or ending an accented syllable before 
i, followed by a vowel, usually has the sound of sh; as in nuntius or 
nvncius, patientia, socius; pronounced nunshius, pashienshia, soshius. 



§ 3 OF SYLLABLES. 6 

§ 3. OF SYLLABLES. 

A Syllable is a distinct sound, forming the whole of a word, 
or so much of it as can be sounded at once. 

A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable. 

A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable, 

A word of three syllables is called a Trissyllable. 

A word of many syllables is called a Polysyllable* 

In a word of many syllables, the last is called the Jinal syl- 
lable. The one next the last, is called the penult, and the 
syllable preceding that, is called the antepenult. 

Obs. The Figures affecting the orthography of words, are 
the following ; viz. 

1st. Prosthesis, prefixes a letter or syllable to a word j as, gnatus 

for natus ; letulit, for tulit. 
2d. Epenthesis, inserts a letter or syllable in the middle of a 

word ; as navita for nauta; Timolus, for Tmolus. 
3d. Paragoge, adds a letter or syllable to the end of a word, as 

amarier for amari, he. 
4th. Aphceresis, cuts off a letter or syllable from the beginning of 
# a word ; as brevisH or brevist, for brevis est ; rhabo for arrhabo. 
5th. Syncope takes a letter or syllable from the middle of a word ; 

as, oraclum for oraculum; am&rim for amavZrim; deum for de- 
drum. 
6th. Apocope, takes a letter or syllable from the end of a word j as 

Jtntoni for Antonii ; men' for mene ; die for dice. 
7th. Antithesis, substitutes one letter for another ; as, olli for 

illi ; vult, vultis for volt, voltis, contractions for volit, volitis. 
8th. Metathesis, changes the order of letters in a word j as, pistris 

for pristis, 
9th. Tmesis, separates the parts of a compound word by inserting 

another word between them j as, qua me cunque vocant terras, 

for qua cunque me, &c. 
10th. Anastrophe t inverts the order of words ; as dare circum, for 

circumdare. 



OF WORDS. § 4 

PART SECOND, 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats of the different sorts of 
words, their various modifications, and their de- 
rivations. 



§ 4. OF WORDS. 

Words are certain articulate sounds used by 
common consent as signs of our ideas. 

1. In respect of Formation, words are either 
Primitive or Derivative, Simple or Compound. 

A Primitive word is one that comes from no other ; as, 
puer, bonus, pater. • 

A Derivative word is one that is derived from another 
word ; as, pueritia, bonitas, paternus. 

A Simple word is one that is not combined with any other 
word 5 as, pius, doceo, verto. 

A Compound word is one made up of two or more simple 
words ; as, impius, dedoceo, animadverto. 

2. In respect of Form, words are either Declin- 
able or Indeclinable. 

A Declinable word is one which undergoes certain changes 
of form or termination to express the different relations of 
gender, number, case, person, &c. usually termed, in Gram- 
mar, Accidents. 

An Indeclinable word is one that undergoes no change of 
form. 

3. In respect of Signification and Use, words 
are divided into different classes, called Parts of 
Speech. 



§5,6. PARTS OF SPEECH OF THE NOUN. 7 

§ 5. PARTS OF SPEECH. 

The Parts of Speech in the Latin language are 
eight, viz. 

1. Noun or Substantive, Adjective, Pronoun, 
Verb, declined. 

2. Adverb, Preposition, Interjection, Conjunc- 
tion, undeclined. 

Obs. 1. The Participle which is regarded by some as a 
distinct part of speech, properly belongs to, and forms a part 
of the verb. 



§ 6. OF THE NOUN. 

A Noun or Substantive, is the name of any per- 
son, place or thing. They are of two kinds, 
Proper and Common. 

1. A Proper Noun is the name applied to an 
individual only ; as, Cicero, Aprilis, Roma. 

Among these may be included, 

Patronymics , or those which express one's parentage or family j as, 
Priamides, the son of Priam. 

Gentile, or Patrial, which denote one's country ,• as, Romanus, GaU 
lus, &c. 

Obs. A proper noun applied to more than one becomes a common 
noun ; as, duodgcim Ccesares, the twelve Csesars. 

2. A Common Noun is a name applied to all 
things of the same sort; as, vir, a man; domus, 
a house ; liber, a book. 

Under this class may be ranged, 

1. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude, which signify many in 
the singular number ; as, populus, a people ; exercitus, an army. 

2. Abstract nouns, or the names of qualities ; as bonitas, good- 
ess; dulcedo. sweetness 



S ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. § 7 

3. Diminutives, or nouns which express a diminution in the signifi- 
cation of the noun from which they are derived j as libelluSj a little 
book, from liber , a book. 

4. Amplificative nouns, or those which denote an increase in the 
signification of the nouns from which they are derived ; as, capita, 
a person having a large head ; from caput, the head. 



§ 7. ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. 

To the Latin noun belong Gender, Number, and 
Case. 

1. Gender means the distinction of nouns with 
regard to Sex. 

There are three Genders, the Masculine, Femi- 
nine, and Neuter. 

Of some nouns the gender is determined by their signifi- 
cation; — of others, by their termination. 

The Masculine gender belongs to all nouns which denote 
the male sex. 

The Feminine gender belongs to all nouns which denote 
the female sex. 

The Neuter gender belongs to all nouns which are neither 
masculine nor feminine. 

Nouns which denote both males and females are said to be 
of the Common gender, i. e. they are both masculine and fe- 
minine. 

Nouns denoting things without sex, and which are some- 
times of one gender, and sometimes of another, are said to be 
Doubtful. 

The gender of nouns not determined by their signification 
is usually to be ascertained by their termination, as will be 
noticed under each declension. 



§ 7 ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. 9 

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON GENDER. 

Obs. 1. Nouns denoting brute animals, especially those 
whose sex is not easily discerned or but rarely attended to, 
commonly follow the gender of their termination. Such are 
the names of wild beasts, birds, fishes, insects, &c. 

Obs. 2. A proper name often follows the gender of the 
general noun under which it is comprehended ; thus, 

The names of months, winds, rivers and mountains, are 
masculine, because mensis, ventus,Jluvius, mons, are mascu- 
line. 

The names of countries, towns, trees, and ships, are femi- 
nine, because terra, urbs, arbor, navis, are feminine. 

To these, however, there are many exceptions. 

Obs. 3. Some nouns are masculine and feminine both in 
sense and grammatical construction ; as adolescens, a young 
man or woman ; Affinis, a relation by marriage ; dux, a 
leader. 

Some are masculine or feminine in sense, but masculine 
only in grammatical construction, i. e. they have an adjective 
word always in the masculine gender ; such as, Arttfex, an 
artist ; fur, a thief; senex, an old person, &c. 

Some are masculine or feminine in sense, but feminine on- 
ly in grammatical construction; i. e. they have an adjective 
word always in the feminine gender; such as, copies, forces, 
troops ; custodies, guards ; operee, labourers, &c. 

Obs. 4. Some nouns denoting persons, are neuter, both in 
termination and construction ; as, Acroama, a jester ; auxi- 
lia, auxilliary troops; mancipium, or servilium, a slave. 

2. Number is that property of a noun by 
which it expresses one, or more than one. 

Latin nouns have two numbers, the Singular 
and the Plural. The Singular denotes one ; the 
Plural, more than one. 

Obs. 5. Some nouns in the plural form denote but one ; as, 
Athence, Athens ; others signify one or more ; as ?iupti<2 i a 
marriage or marriages. 

3. Case is the state or condition of a noun with 
respect to the other words in a sentence. 



10 OP DECLENSION. § 8 

Latin nouns have six cases, the Nominative, 
Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Vocative, and Ablative. 

1st. The Nominative case denotes the name of an object 
simply, or as that of which something is affirmed. 

2d. The Genitive connects with the name of an object, 
the idea of origin or possession. 

3d. The Dative represents the thing named, as that to 
which something is added, or to, or for which, some- 
thing is said or done. 

4th. The Accusative represents the thing named, as affect- 
ed or acted upon by something else, and also, the ob- 
ject to which something tends or relates. 

5th. The Vocative is used when persons and things are 
addressed. 

6th. The Ablative represents the thing named as that 
from which something is separated or taken, or as 
that by or with which something is done, or exists. 

Obs. 6. All the cases, except the nominative, are called Ob- 
lique cases. 

Obs. 7. The signs of the oblique cases, or the prepositions 
by which they are usually rendered into English, are the fol- 
lowing, viz. Genitive, of; Dative, to or for ; Vocative, O; 
Ablative, with, from, in, by, &c. as in the following scheme : 



Singular. 
Nom. a king, 

Gen. of a king, 

Dat. to or for a king, 

Ace. a king, 

Voc. O king, 

Ab\.ioith,from, in or by a king. 



Plural. 
Nom. kings, 

Gen. . of kings, 

Dat. to or for kings, 

Ace. kings, 

Voc. O kings, 

Abl. with, from, in, by kings. 



§ 8. OF DECLENSION. 

Declension is the mode of changing the termi- 
nations of nouns, &c. 

In Latin there are five declensions, called the 
First, Second, Third, Fourth and Fifth. 



§8 



OF DECLENSION. 



11 



The declensions are distinguished from each 
other by the termination of the genitive singu- 
lar; thus, 

The first declension has the genitive singular in -#, 
The second " " in -e, 

The third " " in -w, 

The fourth " " in -us, 

The fifth " " in -ei. 



GENERAL RULES FOR THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

1. Nouns of the neuter gender have the Nomin- 
ative, Accusative and Vocative alike in both 
numbers, and these cases in the plural end al- 
ways in a. 

2. The Vocative for the most part in the singu- 
lar, and always in the plural, is like the Nomina- 
tive. 

3. The Dative and Ablative plural are alike. 

4. Proper names for the most part want the 

plural. 

Obs. 1. The difference between these declensions will be 
seen at one view in the following 







TABLE OF TERMINATIONS. 










Singular. 






I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 




V 






M. N. 


M. N. 


M. 


N. 




Norn. 


-a, 


-us, -er, -urn, 


— 


-us, 


-u, 


-es, 


Gen. 


-8B, 


-h 


-is, 


-tis, 


-% 


-ei', 


Bat. 


-SB, 


-o, 


-h 


-UI, 


-u, 


-ei, 


Ace. 


-am, 


-um, -urn, 


-em, 


-um, 


-fi, 


-em, 


Toe. 


-a> 


-e, -er, -um, 


— 


-us, 


-% 


-es, 


Ml. 


-a. 


-3. 


-e. or -I. 


-Q. 


-a. 


-6. 



12 



THE FIRST DECLENSION. 



§9 



Plural. 





I. 


II. 

M. N. 


Norn. 


-ae, 


-I, -a, 


Gen. 


-arum, 


-orum, 


Dat. 


-is, 


-is, 


Ace. 


-as, 


-os, -a, 


Voc. 


-ae, 


-I, -a, 


Abl. 


-is. 


-is. 





III. 




M. 




N. 


-es, 


-a, 


-ia, 


-urn, 


-ium, 




-lbus, 






-es, 


-a, 


-ia, 


-es, 


-a, 


-ia, 


-lbus. 







N. 
•ua. 



IV. 
M. 

-us, 

-uum, 

-lbus, or -iibus, 

-us, -ua 

-us, -ua 

-lbus, or -iibus. 



-es, 
erum, 
■ebus, 
•es, 
es, 
ebus. 



Obs. 2. The terminations of the Nominative singular in 
the third declension being numerous, are omitted in the ta- 
ble. The terminations of the Gen. Dat. and Abl., Neuter 
are the same as the Masculine. 



§ 9. THE FIRST DECLENSION. 

The First Declension has four terminations ; 
two feminine, a, e, and two masculine, as, es. 
Latin nouns end only in a : the rest are Greek. 





TERMINATIONS. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. -a, 


Nom. -ae, 


Gen. -ae, 


Gen. -arum 


Dat. -ae, 


Dat. -is, 


Ace. -am, 


Ace. -as, 


Voc. -a, 


Voc. -ae, 


Abl. -a. 


Abl. -is. 



Penna, a pen. Fern. 

Singular. 
N. penn-a, a pen, 

G. penn-ae, of a pen, 

D. penn-ae, to, or for a pen, 
Ac. penn-am, a pen, 

V. penn-a, O pen, 

Ab. penn-a, with a pen. 



Plural. 
N. penn-ae, pens, 

G. penn-arum, of pens } 

D. penn-is, to, or for pens, 
Ac. penn-as, pens 

V. penn-ae, O pens, i 

Ab. penn-is, with pens. 



§ 9 FIRST DECLENSION. 13 

Note. — The words declined as examples in this and the other declen- 
sions, are not divided into syllables, and the hyphen (-) is never to be 
regarded as a division of syllables, but only as separating the root 
from the termination, as penn-a, agr-i, &c. 

In like manner decline, 

Ara, an altar; Sella, a seat; Tuba, a trumpet; Litera, a. letter. 

Additional Examples. 

Ala, a wing. Faba ; a bean. Ripa, a bank. 

Area, a chest. Hora, an hour. Turba, a crowd. 

Casa, a cottage. Mensa, a table. Unda, a wave. 

Causa, a cause. Norma, a rule. Virga, a rod. 

EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. 

1. Nuuns in a, denoting appellations of men, as pincerna,a. 
butler; names of rivers, (§7, Obs. 2,) likewise Hadria, the 
Hadriatic ; cometa, a comet ; planeta, a planet 5 and some- 
times talpd, a mole ; and damd, a fallow-deer, are masculine. 
Pascha, the passover, is neuter. 

EXCEPTIONS IN CASE. 

2. The Genitive Singular. — The ancient Latins sometimes 
formed the genitive in -di ; as aula, a hall ; Gen. auldi ;— 
sometimes in -as, as mater-familias, the mother of a fami- 
ly, (See§ 18,9.) 

3. The Accusative Singular. — Greek nouns in a, have 
sometimes -an, in the accusative sing. 5 as, Maian, Ossan. 

4. The Dative and Ablative Plural. — The following nouns 
have -abus instead of -&, in the Dative and Ablative plural, 
to distinguish them from masculine nouns in -us, of the se- 
cond declension, viz. 

Dea, a goddess. Filia, a daughter. 

Equa, a mare. Mula, a she mule. 

GREEK NOUNS. 

Greek nouns in -as, -es, and -e 9 are declined as 
follows, in the singular number: — 

2 



14 FIRST DECLENSION. § 9 

JEneas, Mneas. Anchises, A?ichises. Penelope, Penelope. 

N. JEne-as, N. Anchis-es, JV. Penelop e, 

G. JEne-ae, G. Anchis-ae, G. Penelop-es, 

D. iEne-ae, D. Anchis-ae, D. Penelop-e, 

Ac. iEne-am, or -an, Ac. Anchis-en, Ac. Penelop-en, 

V. iEne-a, V. Anchis-e, V. Penelop-e, 

Ab. -ZEne-a. Ah. Anchis-e. Ab. Penelop-e. 

Like JEneas, decline Boreas, the north wind j Midas, a king of 
Phrygia. 

Like Anchises, decline Jllcides, a name of Hercules ; cometes, a 
comet ; P elides, Achilles, the son of Peleus. 

Like Penelope, decline Circe, a famous sorceress ; Cybtle, the 
mother of the gods -, Epitome, an abridgment ; Grammatice, gram- 
mar. 

Obs. 1. When the plural of proper names occurs, it is 
like the plural of penna ; thus, Atridce^ Atridarum, &c. 

Obs* 2. Nouns in -es have sometimes a in the Vocative, 
more rarely a. Nouns in -stes have -sta. They also some- 
times have the Accusative in -era, and the Ablative in -a. 

EXERCISES ON THE FIRST DECLENSION.* 

1. Tell the case and nu?nber of the folloiving words and 
translate them accordingly : — Penna, pennam, pennarum, 
pennis, penna, pennae ; — aram, aris, sellae, sella, sella, sel- 
larum ; tubis, tubam, tubae, litera, literarum, pennis, aras, 
tubse, literis ; — Penelopes, Penelopen, iEnean, Anchises, 
Anchisae, iEnea. 

2. Translate the folloioing ivords into Latin: — The pen, 
of pens, with pens, from a pen, in a pen, by pens ; from the 
altars ; of a trumpet ; with letters ; a seat ; O altar ; the seat of 
Penelope 5 of iEneas 5 with Anchises 5 a trumpet ; from the 
altar; to a seat; with a pen; of the altars; &c. ad libitum. 

* Words in the above exercises. Proper names usually to be trans 
lated in the nominative case. 

Penna, a pen. Tuba, a trumpet. 

Ara, an altar. Litera, a letter. 

Sella, a seat. 



§10 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



15 



§ 10. THE SECOND DECLENSION. 

The Second Declension has seven terminations; 
namely, 

Five masculine, -er, -ir, -ur, -us, and -os. 

Two Neuter, -urn, and -on. 

Of these terminations, -os, and -on, are Greek; 
the rest are Latin. 





TERMINATIONS. 






Masculine. 




Neuter. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


N. -er, -us, 


N. -i, 


N. -urn, 




N. -a, 


G. -i, 


G. -orum, 


G. -i, 




(?. -orum, 


D. -o, 


D. -is, 


D. -o, 




D. -is, 


Ac. -urn, 


jic. -OS, 


Ac. -um, 




Ac. -a, 


F. -e, or like ncm 


. V. -i, 


F. -um, 




F. -a, 


Ab. -o. 


.4Z>. -is. 


Ab. -o. 




.4J. -is. 



Rem. Nouns in -er, -ir, and -«r, add -i in the genitive ; but -us and 
um are changed into -i. 

Puer, a boy, Masc. 



Plural. 
N. puer-i, boys* 

G. puer-orum, of boys, 

D. puer-is, to, or for boys, 



Singular. 
N. puer, a boy, 

G. puer-i, of a boy, 

D. puer-o, to, or for a boy, 
Ac. puer-um, a boy, 

V. puer, O boy, 

Ab. puer-o. with, fyc. a boy. 

Thus decline, 

Gener, a son-in-law ; Liber, Bacchus, Mulciber, Vulcan; 
Vir, a Man. 

Rule 1. But most nouns in er, lose e, in the 
genitive; as, 

Liber, a book, Masc. 



Ac. puer-os, 
V. puer-i, 
Ab. puer-is. 



boys, 
O boys, 
with, tyc. boys. 



Singular. 
N. liber, 
G. libr-i, 
D. libr-o, 
Ac. libr-um, 
V. liber, 
Ab. libr-o. 



Plural. 
N. libr-i, 
G. libr-orum, 
D. libr-is, 
Ac. libr-os, 
V. libr-i, 
Ab. libr-is. 



Thus decline. 
Ager, afield. 

Aper, a wild boar. 

Culter, a knife. 

Magister, a master. 
Auster, the south wind. 
Cancer, a crab 



16 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



§10 



Rule 2. Nouns in -its, have the Vocative in -e, 
as ventus, vente. 

Dominus, a lord, Masc. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Thus decline. 


N. domin-us, 


N. domin-i, 


Ventus, 


the tvind. 


G. domin-i, 


G. domin-orum, 


cuius, 


the eye, 


D. domin-o, 


D. domin-is, 


Annus, 


a year. 


Ac. domin-um, 


Ac. domin-os, 


Fluvius, 


a river. 


V. domin-e, 


V. domin-i, 


Hortus, 


a garden 


Ab. domin-o. 


Ab. domin-is. 


Radius, 


a ray. 


Regnum, a kingdom 


, Neut. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Thus decline. 


N. regn-um, 


N. regn-a, 


Antrum, 


a cave. 


G. regn-i, 
D. regn-o, 
Ac. regn-um, * 
V. regn-um, 
Ab. regn-o. 


G. regn-orum, 
D. regn-is, 
Ac. regn-a, 
V. regn-a, 
Ab. regn-is. 


A strum, 

Donum, 

Jugum, 

Saxum, 

Pomum, 


a star, 
a gift, 
a yoke, 
a stone, 
an apple. 




Promiscuous Exa? 


nples. 




Arbiter, a judge. 


Folium, a leaf. 


Socer, a father-in-law. 


Bellum, war. 


Gladius, a swora 


1. Telum, 


a dart. 


Cadus, a cask. 


Lupus, a wolf. 


Torus, 


a couch. 


Cervus, a stag. 


Murus, a wall. 


Tectum, 


the roof. 


Collum, the neck 


Nidus, a nest. 


Truncus, 


the trunk. 


Equus, a horse. 


Ovum," an egg. 


Velum, 


a sail. 


Faber, an artist. Praelium, a battle 


Vadum, 


a ford. 


Ficus, f. a figtree. Ramus, a branc 


h. Votum, 


a vow. 



EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. 

Exc. 1. Of nouns ending in -ws, the names of plants, 
towns, islands and precious stones, with few exceptions, are 
feminine, § 7, Obs. 2. 

Exc. 2. Besides these, only four words originally Latin, 
are feminine ; viz. alvus, the belly ; colus, the distaff; hu- 
mus, the ground ; and vannus, a winnowing fan. 

Exc. 3. Virus, juice, poison, and pelagus, the sea, are 
neuter. Vulgus, the common people, is both masculine and 
neuter. Pampi?ius, a vine branch, is rarely feminine, com- 
monly masculine. 



$ 10 SECOND DECLENSION. 17 

Exc. 4. Many Greek nouns in -us^ are feminine, especial- 
ly compounds of r\ vSog ; as, methodus, periodus, &c So also, 
biblus, papyrus, diphthongus, paragraphus, diametrus, peri 
metrus. 

EXCEPTIONS IN DECLENSION. 

Exc. 5. The Vocative Singular. 1st. Proper 
names in ius have the Vocative in i; as Geor- 
gius, V. Georgi ; except Pius which has Pie. 

In like manner, filius, a son, has fili, and genius, one's 
guardian angel, has gerti. But other nouns in -ius, and such 
epithets as Delius, Saturnius, &c. not considered as proper 
names, have ie. 

2d. Deus has deus in the vocative, and in the plural more 
frequently dii and diis, (sometimes contracted di and dis,) 
than dei and dels. Meus, my, has the vocative mi, sometimes 
meus. 

Obs. The poets sometimes make the vocative of nouns in 
"Us, like the nominative 5 rarely so in prose. Sometimes, 
also, they change nouns in -er into -us, as Evander or Evan- 
drus ; in the vocative, Evander or Evandre. 

Exc. 6. The Genitive Singular. — The genitive of singu- 
lar nouns in ius and ium, in the purest age of Latin was 
formed in i, not ii, both in prose and verse, 2.% fili, Tulli, in- 
genii tne y are now frequently written with a circumflex \ 
thus,^, Tulli, ingeni, for filii, Tullii, &c. 

Exc. 7. The Genitive Plural. — Some nouns especially 
those which denote value, measure, weight, commonly form 
the genitive plural in -um instead of -drum ; as, nummum, 
sestertitim, &c. The same form occurs in other words, espe- 



cially in poetry ; 


as, deum, Danaxim, 


&C.5 also, divom is 


used for divorum. 








Deus, a god, is thus declined : 


Singular. 




Plural. 




N. De-us, 




N. De-i, or Di-i, 


Contr. Di, 


G. De-i, 




G. De-orum, 




D. De-o, 




D. De-is, or Di-is, 


Dis, 


Ac. De-um, 




Ac. De-os, 




V. De-us, 




V. De-i, or Di-i, 


" Di, 


Ah. De-o, 




Ab. De-is, or Di-is, 


" Dis. 



18 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



§10 



GREEK NOUNS. 

Greek nouns in -os and -o?z, are often changed into -us and 
-urn; as Alpheos, Alpheus; Uion, Ilium. Those in -ros, into 
er; as, Alexandros, Alexander. When thus changed, they are 
declined like Latin nouns of the same termination. Other- 
wise 

Greek nouns are thus declined. 

Singular. 
N. Del-os, Androge-os, 
G. Del-i, Androge-o, or -i, 
D. Del-o, Androge-o, 
Ac. Del-on, Androge-o,or-on. 
V. Del-e, Androge-os, 
Ab. Del-o. Androge-o. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


N. barbit-on, 


barbit-a, 


G. barbit-i, 


barbit-on, 


D. barbit-o, 


barbit-is, 


Ac. barbit-on, 


barbit-a, 


V, barbit-on, 


barbit-a, 


Ab. barbit-o. 


barbit-is. 



Some nouns in -os, anciently had the genitive in u; as Menandru. 
Panthu occurs in Virgil as the vocative of Panthus. Proper names 
in -eus are declined like do-minus, but have the vocative in -eus, and 
sometimes contract the genitive singular as Orphe'i, Orphei, or Orphi. 
When -eu is a diphthong, they are of the third declension. Other 
nouns, also, are sometimes of the third declension j as, JLndrogeo, 
JLndrogeonis. 



EXERCISES ON THE SECOND DECLENSION.' 

Tell the case and number of the following ivords and 
translate them accordingly : — Pueri, dominor im, domino, 
puero, puerum, pueros, libri, libris, librum, libro, dominis, do- 
mine, regnum, regna, regnorum — ventus, vento, ventum — 
oculus, oculorum — filii, fili, filiis, filios. 

Translate the following words into Latin : — To a boy, 
from a boy, O boy, O boys, of boys, books, of books, for books, 
in books, with a book, a lord, from a lord, to a lord, of lords, 
the lords, of a kingdom, the kingdom, to the kingdoms, to 
the winds of heaven, lords of the soil, &c. ad libitum. 

* Words in the above Exercises, 

Puer, a boy. Regnum, a kingdom. Solum, the soil 

Dominus, a lord. Ventus, the wind. Oculus, the eye. 

Liber, a book. Coelum, heaven. Filius. a son. 



§ 11 THIRD DECLENSION. 19 

§ 11. THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

Nouns of the third declension are very numer- 
ous; they are of all genders; and geneially in- 
crease one syllable in the oblique cases.* Its final 
letters are thirteen, a, e, i, o, y y c, d, /, n, r, s, t, 
Of these a, i, y, are peculiar to Greek nouns. 



£.* 



TERMINATIONS. 



Masculine and Feminine. 
Singular. Plural 

N. — , N. -es, 

G. -is, G. -urn, or -ium 

D. -i, B. -Ibus, 

Ac. -em, Ac. -es, 
V. — , V. -es, 

Ab. -e, or i. Ab. -ibus. 



Neuter. 
Singular. Plural. 
N. — JV. -a, 

G. -is, G. -um, or -ium, 

D. -i X). -Ibus, 

^4c. — , Ac. -a, 

F. -, F. -a, 

Ab. -e, or i. Ab. -ibus. 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 

1. In this declension, the Nominative and Vocative, of 
Masculine and Feminine nouns are always alike. As the final 
syllables of the nominative are very numerous, a dash ( — ) 
supplies their place in the above table. Neuter nouns come 
under the general rule, § 8. 1. 

2. All nouns of this declension are declined by annexing 
the above case-endings, or terminations to the root. 

3. The Root consists of all that stands before -is in the 
genitive, and remains unchanged throughout. Hence, when 
the genitive case is found, the cases after that are alike in all 
nouns, except as noticed hereafter. 

4. The genitive of nouns in this declension, will be most 
easily learned from the Dictionary, as all rules that can be 
given are rendered nearly useless by the number of excep- 
tions under them. 

5. In the following examples, the root and terminations are 
separated by a hyphen (-) in order to shew more distinctly 
the regularity of the declension. This being mentioned, it 

* A noun is said to increase when it has more syllables in any case 
than it has in the nominative. 



20 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§12 



will occasion no difficulty, though standing as it often does, 
in the middle of a syllable; as, pa tr-is. 



§ 12. EXAMPLES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



Singular. 

N. Sermo, 
G. Sermon-is, 
D. Sermon-i, 
Ac. Sermon-em, 
V. Sermo, 
Ab. Serm5n-e. 



1. Sermo, a speech, Masc. 
Plural. 
N. Sermon-es, 
G. SermOn-um, 
_D. Sermon-ibus, 
Ac. Sermon-es, 
V. Sermon-es, 
Ab. Sermon-ibus. 



Thus decline. 

Carbo. a coal. 
Leo, a lion. 
Pavo, a peacock. 
Praedo, a robber. 



2. Color, a color, Masc. 



Singular. 

N. color, 

G. cdor-is, 

D. color-i, 

Ac. color-em, 

V. color, 

Ab. color-e. 



N. 

G. 

D. 

Ac. 

V. 

Ab. 



Plural. 
color-es, 
color-um, 
color-ibus, 
color-es, 
color-es, 
color-ibus. 



Thus decline. 



Honor, honor. 
Lector, a reader. 
Pastor, a shepherd 



3. Miles, a soldier, Masc. 



Singular. 
N* miles, 
G. milit-is, 
D. milit-i, 
Ac. milit-em, 
V. miles, 
Ab. milit-e. 



N. 

G. 

D. 

Ac. 

V. 

Ab. 



Plural. 
milit-es, 
milit-um, 
milit-ibus, 
milit-es, 
milit-es, 
milit-ibus. 



Thus decline. 

Comes,a companion 
Limes, a limit. 
Trames, a path. 



Rule 1 . Nouns in -es and -is, not increasing in 
the genitive singular, have -ium in the genitive 
plural. 

Except canis, a dog; panis, bread; vatis, a prophet j juvenis, a 
young man ; and volucris, a bird. 



§12 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



21 



4. Rupes, a rock, Fem. 



Singula?'. 
N. rup-es, 
G. rup-is, 
D. rup-i, 
Ac. rup-em, 
V. rup-es, 
Ab. rup-e. 



Plural. 
N. rup-es, 
G. rup-ium, 
D. rup-ibus, 
Ac. rup-es, 
V. rup-es, 
Ab. rup-ibus. 



Thus decline. 



Apis, 

Classis, 

Moles, 

Nubes, 

Vitis, 

Vulpes, 



a bee. 
a fleet, 
a mass, 
a cloud, 
a vine, 
a fox. 



Rule 2. Nouns of one syllable in -as and -is, 

and also, in s and x, after a consonant have -turn 
in the genitive plural ; as, 

5. Pars, a part, Fem. 
Plural. 



Singular. 
N. pars, 
G. part-is, 
D. part-i, 
Ac. part-em, 
V. pars, 
Ab. part-e. 



JV. part-es, 
G. part-ium, 
D. part-ibus, 
Ac. part-es, 
V. part-es, 
Ab. part-ibus. 



Thus decline. 
Calx, -cis, the heel 
Vas,-dis, a surety. 
Lis, -tis, alaW'Suit. 
Arx,-cis, a citadel. 
Urbs,-is, a city. 
Pons, -tis, a bridge. 



Rule 3. Nouns of more than one syllable in 
-as and -ns, have -um y and sometimes -ium in the 
genitive plural. 

6. Parens, a parent, Masc. or Fem. 



Singular. 
N. parens, 
G. parent-is, 
D. parent-i, 
Ac. parent-em, 
V. parens, 
Ab. parent- e. 



Plural. 
N. parent-es, 
G. parent-um, -ium. 
D. parent-ibus, 
Ac. parent-es, 
V. parent-es, 
Ab. parent-ibus. 



Thus decline. 
Rudens, a cable 
Cliens, a client. 
Serpens, a serpent 



Obs. 1 . Masculine and Feminine nouns which have -ium in 
the genitive plural, have sometimes -is, or -eis, as well as 
-es in the Nominative, Accusative and Vocative plural ; as, 
partes, partium. Nom. Ace. and Voc. partes, parteis, or 
partis. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§12 



Singult 



7. Opus, a toork, Neut. § 8. R. 1. 



lar. 
N. opus, 
G. oper-is r 
D. oper-i, 
Ac. opus, 
V. opus, 
Ab. oper-e. 



Plural, 
N. oper-a, 
G. oper-um, 
D. oper-ibus, 
Ac. oper-a, 
V. oper-a, 
Ab. oper-ibus. 



Thus decline. 

Funus, a funeral. 

Latus, the side. 

Corpus-oris, the body. 
Caput, capitis, the head. 
Iter, itineris, a journey. 



Rule 4. Nouns in -e and ~al, and -ar, have H in 
the Ablative singular; -turn in the Genitive plu- 
ral ; and -ia in the Nominative, Accusative and 
Vocative plural. 

Exc. Proper names in -e have -e in the Ablative ; as, Prceneste, 
Neut. a town in Italy \ Ablative, Prceneste. 

8. Sedi'Le, a seat, Neut. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Thus decline. 


N. sedil-e, 


N. sedil-ia, 


Ancile, 


a shield. 


G. sedil-is, 


G. sedil-ium, 


Mantile, 


a towel. 


D. sedil-i, 


D. sedll-ibus, 


Mare, 


the sea. 


Ac. sedil-e, 


Ac. sedil-ia, 


Rete, 


a net. 


V. sedil-e, 


V. sedil-ia, 


Cubile, 


a couch. 


Ab. sedil-i. 


Ab. sedll-ibus. 








9. Animal, an animal, Neut. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Thus decline* 


N. animal, 


N. animal-ia, 






G. animal-is, 


G. animal-ium, 


Cubital, 


a cushion. 


D. animal-i, 


D. animal- lbus, 


Calcar, 


a spur. 


Ac. animal, 


Ac. animal-ia, 


Vectigal 


, a tax. 


V. animal, 


V. animal-ia 






Ab. animal-i. 


Ab. animal- lbus. 








ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES. 




Acer, -eris, n. 


a maple tree. Homo, -Inis, c. 


a man 


iEtas, -a tis, f. 


age. Imago, -inis, f. 


an image, 


Arbor, -Oris, f. 


a tree. Iter, itineris, n. 


a journey 


Aries, -etis, m. 


a ram. Lac, -tis, n. 


milk. 


Ars, -tis, f. 


an art Lapis 


, -Idis, m. 


a stone. 



§13 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



Canon, -onis, m. 


a rule. 


Laus, -dis, f. 


praise. 


Career, -ens, m. 


a prison. 


Lex, -legis, f. 


a law. 


Cardo, -inis, m. 


a hinge. 


Monile, -is, f. 


a necklace. 


Carmen, -Inis, n. 


a poem. 


Mons, -tis, m. 


a mountain, 


Cervix, -icis, f. 


the neck. 


Munus, -eris, n. 


a gift. 


Codex, -Icis, m. 


a book. 


Nox, noclis, f. 


night. 


Consul, -ulis, m. 


a consul. 


Onus, -eris, n. 


a burden 


Cor, cordis, n. 


the heart. 


Ovile, -is, n. 


a sheepfola. 


Crux, -ucis, f. 


a cross. 


Pecten, -Inis, m. 


a comb. 


Cubile, -is, n. 


a couch. 


Regio, -onis, f. 


a region. 


Dens, -tis, m. 


a tooth. 


Salar, aris, m. 


a trout. 


Dos, -dotis, f. 


a dowry. 


Serpens, -tis, c. 


a serpent. 


Femur, -oris, n. 


the thigh. 


Toral,- dis, n. 


a bed cover. 


Formido, -Inis, f. 


fear. 


Trabs, -ibis, f. 


a beam. 


Fornax, -acis, f. 


a furnace. 


Turris, -is, f. 


a tower. 


Frater, -tris, m. 


a brother. 


liter, utris, m. 


a bottle. 


Fur, far is, c. 


a thief. 


Virgo.-Inis, f. 


a virgin. 


Genus, -eris, n. 


a kind. 


Voluptas, -atis, f. 


pleasure. 


Hseres, -edis, c. 


an heir. 


Vulnus, -eris, n. 


a wound. 



EXERCISES ON THE EXAMPLES. 

Tell the case and number of the folloiving loords and 
translate them accordingly : — Sermonis, sermonum, colon- 
bus, colori, colore, colores, militum, militis, militem, militi- 
bus, rupis,rupe, rupium, rupi, rupibus, partium, partes, parte, 
partis, parenti, parente, parentum, parentes, parentis, opera, 
opere, operi, operibus, operum, sedilis, sedilia, sedilibus, 
sedili, sedilium, animalia, animalis, animali. 

Translate the following words into Latin: — Of a rock, 
of rocks, from a soldier, with soldiers, to a seat, seats, of 
seats, the works, of a soldier, to the color, of a rock, a seat, 
for a parent, the speech, of a parent, to a soldier, the color 
of an animal, from rocks, to rocks, &c. ad libitum. 



§ 13. GENDER OF NOUNS IN THE THIRD DE- 
CLENSION. 

GENERAL RULES. 

1. Nouns in n, and o, er, or and os, are gener- 
ally masculine. 



24 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§14 



2. Nouns in do, go, and to; as, es, and is; 
s, after a consonant, and x are for the most part 
feminine. 

3. Nouns in a, e, and i ; c, I, and t; at, ur 9 
and us, are almost always neuter. 

The exceptions to these rules, especially to the first and se- 
cond are many, and will be most effectually learned by prac- 
tice. 



§ 14. THE GENITIVE SINGULAR. 

In order to decline a noun of the third declension, the 
genitive case must first be known. For this, no rules can be 
given of much practical utility, owing to the number of ex- 
ceptions under them. The most common formations of this 
case are exhibited in the following table : 





JYom 




Gen. 




Norn. 


Gen. 


1 


a, 




-atis, 


as 


diadema, 


diadem-atis. 


2 


e, 




-is, 


it 


mare, 


maris. 


a 


h 




-itis, 


it 


hydromeli, 


hydromel-Itis. 


4 


J> 




-yos, 


a 


moly, 


moly- os. 


5 


o, 




-onis, 


a 


sermo, 


sermonis. 


6 


do, 


(fern.) 


-inis, 


it 


formido, 


formid-Inis. 


7 


So, 


(fern.) 


-inis, 


tt 


imago, 


imag-inis. 


8 


c, d 


u 


-is, 


it 


animal, 


animal-is. 


9 


n, 




-is, 


tt 


canon, 


canon-is. 


10 


en, 


(neut.) 


-inis, 


a 


carmen 


carra-inis. 


11 


r, 




-is, 


a 


anser, 


anser-is. 


12 


as, 




-atis, 


tt 


setas, 


ae talis. 


13 


es, 




-is, 


ti 


sedes, 


sedis. 


14 


is, 




-is, 


tt 


vitis, 


vitis. 


15 


OS, 




-otis, 


it 


nepos, 


nepotis. 


16 


us, 




-eris, 


tt 


latus, 


lateris. 


17 


ys, 




-yis, yos 


ti 


chelys, 


chely-is, -os. 


18 


bs, 




-bis, 


a 


trabs, 


trabis. 


19 


ps, 




-Pis, 


tt 


stirps, 


stirpis. 


20 


ut, 




-itis, 


it 


caput, 


capitis. 


21 


ns, 




-tis, 


tt 


parens, 


parentis. 


22 


rs, 




-tis, 


a 


pars, 


partis. 


23 


x, 




-cis, 


ti 


VOX. 


vocis. 



§ 14 



THIRD DECLENSION. 25 



In the above table, to the terminations opposite the numbers 1, 2, 
3, 4, 7, 10, and 20, there are no exceptions in the formation of the 
genitive. To the terminations opposite the other numbers, the fol- 
lowing exceptions may be noticed ; viz. 

5. Apollo, cardo, homo, margo, nemo, turbo, have -inis; Anio } and 
nerio, change, -o into -enis ; and caro has carnis. 

6. Dido , -us or -onis; Unedo, unedonis. 

8. Fel. fellis ; lac, ladis. 

9. Chameleon, Charon, Laomedon, add -tis, 

11. Accipiter, cam-pester, mater, pater, Silvester, uter, change -ter 
into -tris : — Acer, alacer, volucer have -cm : — Celeber, December, 
imber, November, October, Saluber, September, change -ber into -6m;— 
Ebur, jecur, robur, have oris; cor has cordis; Jupiter, Jo vis ; far, 
f arris ; hepar, hepcitis. 

12. Areas, lampas, Pallas, a goddess vas, a surety, have -adis: — 
Gigas, Pallas, a man's name, have -antis ; As has assis ; mas, maris ; 
vas, a vessel, vasts. 

13. Abies, aries, hebes, indiges, interpres, paries, perpes, prcepes, 
seges, leges, and teres, have His: — Chr ernes* Crates, Cres, Dares,* 
Laches, locuples, mansues, mendes, quies, tapes, Thales,* have His : — 
Ales, antistes, dives, eques, limes, merges, miles, palmes, sospes, termes, 
tudes, and veles have -itis : — hceres and merces have edis : — Obses, 
praises, and derivatives of sedes, have idis : — Ceres and pubes* have 

tris: — Aes has eeris, prces, prcedis ; and pes, pedis. 
Note. — Those marked thus * are also regular. 

14. Capis, cassis, cuspis, graphis, lapis. Paris, pixis, promulsis, 
Themis,tyrannis, have idis: — Jaspis, has idis or idos : — Crenis, glis, 
mouldiness ; Nesis, and Phosphis, have -idis: — Dis, lis, Quiris, Sam- 
nis, have itis ; and Charis has Charitis : — Cucumis, vomis, and pulvis, 
have -tris : — Salmis has -inis ; sanguis, -inis ; semis, semissis ; glis, a 
dormouse, gliris ; hceresis, -Zos, and -ios ; metropolis, -£os and -ios; and 
Opois, Pyrois, Simois, have -entis. 

15. Flos, glos, honos-or, labos-or, mos, os, the mouth, and ros, have 
.oris: — Arbos, has arboris ; bos, bovis ; custos, custodis; os, a bone, 
ossis ; and the Greek nouns Heros, Minos, Thos, and 7Yo$, have 
-ois. 

16. Corpus, decus, dedecus,fcenus,frigus, lepus, littus, m nemus, pectus, 
pecus, penus, pignus, stercus, tempus, and tergus, have -oris: — Crus, 
jus, mus, plus, rus, tellus, and thus have -uris: — Juventus, salus, se~ 
nectus, servitus, virtus, have -utis: — Incus, subscus, and palus, have 

3 



26 THIRD DECLENSION. § 15 

Qdi$:—fraus, has fraudis ; laus, laudis ; ligus-ur, has liguris ; sus> 
suis , Oedipus , and Tripus, have -tfdis; Orpheus, Orpheos ; and Opttjr 
and Trapezus, have -untis. 

17. Chlamys and Pelamys, have -2/cfos, or -ydis ; Phorcys and Tra- 
ces have -7/7105, or -yms. 

18. Calebs has ccelibis. 

19. Adeps, forceps, manceps, municeps, particeps, princeps, change 
-€/>$ into ipis ; — Anceps, biceps, and prceceps change -eps into -ipitis: — 
Auceps has aucupis ; Cinyps, Cinyphis; and Gryps, Gryphis. 

21. Glans, libripens, nefrens, change -5 into -<£is ; — Jens has euntis ; 
Tiryns, Tirynthis. 

22. Concors and misericors, change -s into -cfo's. 

23. Allobrox, aquilex, Biturix, conjunx,frux, grex, harpax, larynx, 
lex, phalanx, Phryx, Sphynx, strix, syrinx, change -x into -gis : — Du- 
plex, index, judex, pollex, simplex, change -ex into -ids : — Astyanax, 
Bibrax, Hipponax, Hylax, change -ax, into -actis: — Nix has nivis ; 
nox, noctis ; remex, remigis ; senex, senis, and -ids; onyx, onychis ; 
and suppellex, suppellectilis. 



§ 15. EXCEPTIONS IN DECLENSION. 
THE ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR. 

1. The following nouns in -is have -im in the Accusative. 

Amussis, f.a measure, rule. Ravis, f. a hoarseness. 

Buris, f. the beam of a plough. Sinapis, f. mustard. 

Can a bis, f. hemp. Sitis, f. thirst. 

Cucumis, m. a cucumber. Tussis, f. a cough, 

Gummis, f. gum. Vis, f. strength. 
Mephitis, f. a strong smell. 

2. Proper names in -is have -im in the Accusative ; viz. 
Names of cities and other places ; as, Bilbilis, f. a city of 

Spain ; Syrtis, f. a quicksand on the coast of Africa. 

Names of rivers ; as Tiberis, m, the Tiber 5 Bcetts, m. 
the Guadalquiver. 

Names of Gods ; as, Anubis, m. Osiris, m. Egyptian 
Deities. 
Note, — These nouns have sometimes -in in the Accusative 



§ 15 THIRD DECLENSION. 2# 

3. The following nouns in -is have -em, or -im in the Ac- 
cusative 5 viz. 

Aqualis, f. a waterpot. Puppis, f. the stern of a ship. 

Clavis, f. a key. Restis, f. a rope. 

Cutis, f. the skin. Securis, f. an axe. 

Febris, f. a fever. Sementis, f. a sowing. 

Lens, f. lentiles. Strigilis, f. a curry-comb. 

Navis, f. a ship. Turris, f. a tower. 
Pelvis, f. a bason. 

Note 1. — Puppis, restis, securis and turris have generally -tm, the 
others commonly -em. The oldest Latin writers form the accusative 
of some other nouns, in -im; as, avis, auris. 

4. Nouns which have been adopted from the Greek, some- 
times retain a in the Accusative ; as, heros, m. a hero, heroa; 
Tros, m. a Trojan, Troa. See No. 13. 

Note 2. — This form is seldom used by the best prose writers and is 
chiefly confined to proper names, except in -air, m. the air ; cether 9 
m. the sky; delphin, m. a dolphin j Pan, m. the god of the shep- 
herds, which commonly have aera, cethZra, ddphina, and Pana. 

Obs. 1. Many Greek nouns in -es have -en, as well as -em 
in the Accusative } as, Eujjhraten, Oresten, Pyladen. 

ABLATIVE SINGULAR. 

5. Nouns in -is which have -im in the Accusative, 
have -i in the Ablative ; as, sitis, sitim, siti. 

But cannabis, Batis, sindpis and Tigris, have -e or -i. 

6. Nouns in -is which have -em or -im in the 
Accusative, have -e or -i in the Ablative; as, 
clavis, clave or c/aw. 

Note 3. But cults, and resets have -e only; securis, sementis, and 
strigilis, have seldom -e. 

7. The following nouns which have -em in the Accusative 
have -e or -t in the Ablative : viz. 

Amnis, m. a river. Occiput, n the hind-head. 

Anguis, m. and f. a snake. Orbis, m. a circle. 

Avis. f. a bird. Pars, f. a part 



28 THIRD DECLENSION. § 15 

Civis c. a citizen. Postis, m. a door post. 

Classis, f. a fleet. Pugil, c. a pugilist. 

Finis, m. and f. an end. Rus, n. the country 

Fustis, m. a staff. Sors, f. a lot. 

Ignis, m. afire. Supellex, f. furniture. 

Imber, m. a shower. Unguis, m. a nail. 

Mugil, ra. a mullet. Vectis, m.alever. 

Note 4. Finis, mugil, occiput, pugil, rus, Supellex, and vectis, have 
-c or -i indifferently -, the others have much more frequently -e. 

Obs. 2. Names of Towns, when they denote the place in 
or at which any thing is done, take -e, or -i; as Carthagine, 
or Carthagini. 

Obs. 3. Canalis, m. or f. a water pipe, has canali only. 
Likewise names of months in -is, or -er; as Aprllis, Sep- 
tember, Aprlli, Septembri; and those nouns in -is, which 
were originally adjectives 5 as, cedtlis, afftnis, bipennis, fa- 
miliar 'is, natdlis, rivdlis, soddlis, volucris, fyc. This class 
of nouns also admits -e in the Ablative : Rudis, f. a rod, and 
juvenis, c. a youth, have -e only. 

8. The following Neuter Nouns in -al and -ar have -e in 
the Ablative : viz. 

Baccar, lady's glove. Jubar, a sunbeam. Sal, salt. 
Far, corn. Nectar, nectar. 

Obs. 4. Par, when used as a substantive, forms the Abla- 
tive Singular, and Genitive Plural, in the same way as the 
Adjective. §21. Rule 2. 

GENITIVE PLURAL 

[See Rules, § 12.] 

9. The following Nouns have -ium in the Genitive Plural : 

Caro, f. flesh. Fauce, f. the jaws. Nox, f. night. 

Cohors, f. a cohort. Lar, m. a household god. Os, n. a bone. 
Cor, n. the heart. Linter, m. or f. a boat. Quiris, m. a Roman. 
Cos, f. a whetstone. Mus, m. a mouse. Samnis, m. a Samnite. 

Dos, f. a dowry. Nix, f. snow. Uter, m. a bottle. 

Obs. 5. The compounds of un cia and as have likewise -ium; as 
Septunx, m. seven ounces, Septuncium ; Sextans, m. two ounces, Sex 
tantium. 



§ 15 THIRD DECLENSION. 29 

Obs 6. *flpis, f. a bee, has apum and apium ; opis, f. power, has 
vpum only. Gryps, m. a griffon ; lynx, m. or f. a lynx ; and Sphinx, 
f. the Sphinx, have -urn. Bos, c. gen. btivis, an ox, has bourn. 

DATIVE PLURAL. 

10. Bos c. an ox has bobus or bubus in the Dative Plural ; and 
sus, c. a sow, has suibus, or subus. Nouns in -ma, have 'tis as well 
as -tibus ; as po'ema, n. a poem, poematibus or poematis. The Greek 
termination -si or -sira is very uncommon in prose, and is admissible 
only in words purely Greek. See No. 13. 

ACCUSATIVE PLURAL. 

11. The form of the Accusative Plural in -as is admissible m all 
words which have that termination in Greek, but is rarely used in 
Prose. Livy, however, frequently uses Macedonas j and Allobrogas 
is found in Caesar. 

12. Some nouns of the third Declension are somewhat pe- 
culiar in different cases, as follows: 



Jupiter. 


Vis, force, 


power, Fern. 


Singular. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


N. Jupiter, 


N. vis, 


N. vir-es, 


G. Jov-is, 


G. vis, 


G. vir-ium, 


D. J6v-i, 


D. -, 


D. vir-ibus, 


Ac. J6v-em, 


Ac. vim, 


Ac. vir-es, 


V. Jupiter, 


V. vis, 


V. vir-es, 


Ab. J6v-e. 


Ab. vi. 


Ab. vir-ibus. 


Bos, an ox, c 


>r cow, Masc. or 


Fem. 


Singular. 


Plural 


. 


N. bos, 


N. bov-es, 




G. bov-is, 


G. bourn, 




D. bov-i, 


D. bobus, t 


?r bubus,* 


Ac, bov-em, 


Ac. bov-es, 




V. bos, 


V. bov-es, 




Ab. bov-e. 


Ab. bobus, 


or bubus. 



* Contracted for bovibus. 
3* 



3U 


FOUB 


,TH DEC 


JLENSION. 


§ 16 


13. GREEK NOUNS THROUGH ALL THE CASES. 


Nom. 


Gen. 


Dot. 


Ace. 


Foe. 4M. 


S. Lamp-as, 


-adis, or ados, 


-adi, 


-adem, or -ada, 


-as, -ade. 


Pi. Lamp-ades 


, -adum, 


-adibus, 


-ades, or adas, 


-ades, -adibus. 


S. Tro-as, 


-adis, or -ados, 
< 


-adi, 
' -adibus, 


-adem, or ada, 


-as, -ade. 

( -adibus, 


PL Tro-ades, 


-adum, < 


-asi, or 
[ -asin, 


-ades, or -adas, 


-ades, } -asi, or 
{ -asin. 


S. Tros, 


Trois, 


Troi, 


Troem, or Troa, 


Tros, Troe. 


S. Phyll-is, 


-idis, or -idos, 


-idi, 


-idem, or -ida, 


-i, or -is,-ide. 


S. Par-is, 


-idis, or -idos, 


-idi, 


-idem, -im, or -ir 


i,-i, -ide. 


S. Chlam-ys, 


-ydis, or -ydos, 


-ydi, 


-ydem, or -ida, 


-ys, -yde. 


S. Cap-ys, 


-yis, or -yos, 


-yi> 


-ym, or -yn, 


-y, -ye. 


S. Ha?res-is, 


-is, or -eos, 


•h 


-im, or -in, 


-i, -i. 


S. Orph-eus, 


-eos, or -ei, or ei 


-ei, or -ei 


-ea, 


-eu, -eo. 


S. Did-o, 


•us, or onis, 


-o, or -oni 


,-o, or -onem, 


-o, -o, or -one 



§ 16. THE FOURTH DECLENSION. 

The Fourth Declension has two terminations, 
-us and -w. Nouns in -us are Masculine. Those 
in -u are Neuter, and indeclinable in the singular 
number. 

TERMINATIONS. 



Singular. 


Plural. 




Masc. 


Masc. 


Neut. 


JV. -us, 


JV. -us, 


-ua, 


G. -us, 


G. -uum, 


-uum, 


JD. -ui, 


D. -lbus, 


-lbus, 


Ac. -urn, 


Ac. -us, 


-ua, 


V. -us, 


V. -us, 


-ua, 


Ab. -u. 


Ab. -lbus. 
Fructus, fruit, Masc 


-lbus. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Thus decline. 


N. fruct-us, 


N. fruct-us, 




G. fruct-us, 


G. fruct-uum, 


Casus, a fall. 


D. fruct-ui, 


D. fruct-ibus, 


Currus, a chariot. 


Ac. fruct-um, 


Ac. fruct-us, 


Fluctus,a viave. 


V. fruct-us. 


V. fruct-us, 


Gradus, a step, 


Ab. fruct-u. 


Ab. fruct-ibus, 





§16 



FOURTH DECLENSION. 



31 



Singular. 
N. cornu, 
G. cornu, 
D. cornu, 
Ac. cornu, 
V. cornu, 
Ab. cornu. 



Cornu, a horn, Neut. 

Plural. 
N. corn-ua, 
G. corn-uum, 
D. corn-ibus, 
Ac. corn-ua, 
V. corn-ua, 
Ab. corn-ibus. 



Thus decline, 

Gelu, ice. 
Genu, the knee. 
Tonitru, thunder. 
Veru, a spit. 



ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES. 



Flatus, a blast. 
Ictus, a stroke. 
Manus, f. the hand. 



Motus, a motion. 
Nutus, a nod. 
Passus, a face. 



Ritus, a ceremony. 
Sinus, a bosom. 
Situs, a situation. 



EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. 

Exc. 1. The following nouns are feminine : viz. 

Acus, a needle. Ficus, a fig. Portlcus, a gallery. 

Anus, an old woman. Manus, the hand. Specus, a den* 

Domus, a house. Penus,* a storehouse. Tribus, a tribe. 

* Sometimes masculine. 



EXCEPTIONS IN DECLENSION. 

Exc. 2. The Genitive and Dative Singular : — In some wri- 
ters the Genitive Singular is occasionally found in -uis ; as, 
ejus anuis causa, for anus. Terence. In others the Dative 
is sometimes found in -u ; as, resistere impetu, for impetui ; 
Esse usu sibi, for usui, Cic. 

Exc. 3. The Genitive, — and the Dative and Ablative Plu- 
ral : — The Genitive Plural is sometimes contracted ; as, cur- 
rum, for curruttm. The following nouns have -icbus instead 
of xbus in the Dative and Ablative Plural : viz. 



Acus, a needle. 
Arcus, a bow. 
Artus, a joint. 
Genu * the knee. 



Lacus, a lake. 
Partus, a birth. 
Portus,* a harbour. 



Specus, a den. 
Tribus, a tribe. 
Veru,* a svit 



* These words have also -Ibus. 



Obs. 1. Nouns of this declension seem to have belonged 
anciently to the third, and were declined like grus, gruis, 
thus, fructus, fructU'is, fructu-i, &c. So that all the cases 



32 FIFTH DECLENSION. § 17 

except the Dative Singular and the Genitive Plural may be 
regarded as contracted forms of that declension. 

Obs. 2. Several nouns of this declension are in whole or 
in part of the second also, such as, Ficus, penus. domus and 
several others. Capricornus, m. and the compounds of ma- 
nus, as, unimanus, Centimanus, &c, are always of the se 
cond. 

Obs. 3. Jesus the name of the Saviour has -urn in the Ac- 
cusative, and -u in all the other cases. 

Domus, a house, Fern, is thus declined. 
Singular. Plural. 

N. dom-us, JV. dom-us, 

G. dom-us, or -i, G. dom-orum, or -uum, 

D. dom-ui, or -o, D. dom-ibus, 

Ac. dom-um, Ac. dom-us, or -os, 

T. dom-us, V. dom-us, 

Ab. dom-o. Ab. dom-ibus. 

Note. — Domus in the Genitive, signifies of a home. Domi is used 
only to signify at home, or of home. 

EXERCISES ON THE FOURTH DECLENSION 

1. Tell the gender, number and case of the following 
words from the paradigm and additional examples, pp. 30, 
and 31, and translate. 

Fructus, fructus, fructuum, flatibus, flatu, manuum, mani- 
bus, nutu, passuum, passibus, passus, cornua, tonitrlbus, ve- 
rubus, casu, currum, currui, fluctu, fluctibus, cormbus, &c. 

2. Translate the following words into Latin and tell the 
gender, number and case in ivhich the words are put: viz. 

Of fruit, to fruit, with the hand, for the hand, of a horn, 
to a horn, with a horn, from horns, horns, the horns, of the 
chariot, for a chariot, of chariots, from the waves, for the 
waves, from his hands, with a nod, &c. 

§ 17. THE FIFTH DECLENSION. 

The Fifth Declension has but one termination, 
namely, -es; as, res, a thing; dies,& day. 



§17 



FIFTH DECLENSION. 



33 



All nouns of this declension are Feminine except dies, a 
day, which is masculine or feminine in the singular, and al- 
ways masculine in the plural ; and meridies, the mid-day, 
which is masculine in the singular and wants the plural. 





Dies, a day. 










TERMINATIONS. 


Singular, 


Plural. 


Sing. 


Flu. 


N. di-es, 


N. di-es, 


-es, 


-es, 


G. di-ei, 


G. di-erum, 


-ei 


-erum, 


D. di-ei, 


D. di-ebus, 


-ei, 


-ebus. 


Ac. di-em, 


Ac. di-es, 


-em, 


-es, 


V. di-es, 


V. di-es, 


-es, 


-es, 


Ab. di-e. 


Ab. di-ebus. 


-e. 


-ebus. 



Obs. 1. Dies and res are the only nouns of the Fifth De- 
clension which have the Plural complete; acies, effigies, fa- 
des, series, species and spes, in the Plural have only the Nomi- 
native, Accusative, and Vocative; the others have no plural. 



Singular. 
N. faci-es, 
G. faci-ei, 
D. faci-ei, 
Ac. faci-em, 
V. faci-es, 
Ab. faci-e. 



Facies, the face. Fern 

Plural. 
N. faci-es, 

G. 

D. 



Ac. faci-es, 
V. faci-es. 
Ab. 



Thus decline. 

Effigies, an image. 
Series, a series. 
Spes, ei', hope. 
Acies, an army* 



Exc. The poets sometimes make the Genitive, and more 
rarely the Dative singular in -e; &s, jide,f or fide? . Ov. JKe- 
guies, is both of the third and fifth declension. 

EXERCISES ON THE FIFTH DECLENSION. 

1. Tell the gender, number and case of the following nouns t 
and translate: — Diei", spei,aciem, acie, faciei, facies, diebus, 
dierum, dies, faciem, effigiem, series, rerum, diebus, diem, &c. 
ad libitum. 

2. Translate the following English words into Latin and 



34 IRREGULAR NOUNS. § 18 

tell the gender, &c : — The image, of the face, the things, of 
the army J the hope, of the army, a series, of days, to a day, 
from the days, with the army, to an image, with faith, &c. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON ALL THE DECLENSIONS. 

Tell the gender, declension, case and number of the following 
nouns, in the order here mentioned, and give the translation ,• thus, 
Penna, A noun, fern, first ; in the Ablative singular, with a 'pen.* 

Via, pueri, genero, ventis, puerorum, sermo, sedile, sedlli, 
sedilium, sedilibus, fructuum, fructus, sellae, tubam, regno, 
templi, dies, rerum, capite, capitum, itineribus, partis, pa- 
rentibus, rupe, urbis, vulpem, vulpibus, parente, sedilia, die, 
colorem, militis, militibus, sermones, honore, manus, manus, 
manibus, faciem, ala, tubam, mensarum, bellum, dominorum, 
templum, puerorum, bella, bello, &c. 

Translate the following into Latin, and state the gender, declension, 
case and number, always following the same order : thus, " Of boys," 
puerorum, Noun, masc. second; in the Genitive plural.* 

From the way, to a speech, with a part, of a seat, of seats, 
to the wind, a kingdom, to a boy, of boys, with lords, foxes, 
of tables, to parents, with seats, of soldiers, from the head, 
heads, to a part, with a trumpet, in a time, of war, the time, 
of peace, in a journey, to a seat, of a rock, to sons-in-law, 
with fruit, of the face, with a seat, to tables, of rocks, &c. 



§ 18. IRREGULAR NOUNS. 

Irregular Nouns are divided into Variable, Defective and 
'Redundant* 

* Words used in the above exercises ; the declension is indicated 
by the genitive according to § 8. 

Ala, -de, a wing. Iter, itineris, a way. Sedile, -is, a seat, 

Bellum, -i, war. Manus, -us, a hand. Sella, -se, a seat. 

Caput, -His, the head, Mensa, -se, a table. Sermo, -onis a speech 

Color, -is, color. Miles, -Itis, a soldier. Templum, -i, a temple 

Dies, -ei, a day. Parens, -tis, a parent. Tempus, -oris, time. 

Dominus, -i, a lord. Pars, -tis, a part. Tuba, -ae, a trumpet. 

Facies, -ei, the face. Puer, -i, a boy. Urbs, -is, a city.^ 
Fructus, -us, fruit. Regnum, -i, a kingdom. Ventus, -i, the wind. 

Gener, -i, a son-in-law. Res, rei, a thing. Via, -se, a way. 

Honor, -is, honor. Rupes, -is, a rock. Vulpes, -is, a fox. 



§ 18 IRREGULAR NOUNS. 35 

I. VARIABLE NOUNS. 

Nouns are variable either in Gender or Declension, or in 
both. Nouns varying in gender are called, Heterogeneous. 
Those which vary in declension are called, Heteroclites. 

Heterogeneous Nouns. 

1. Masculine in the Singular, and Neuter in the Plural ; as, 

Avernus, a hill in Campania. Pangseus, a promontory in Thrace. 

Dindymus, a hill in Phrygia. Taenarus, a promontory in Laconia. 

Ismarus, a hill in Thrace. Tartarus, hell. 

JVlaenalus, a hill in Arcadia. Taygetus, a hill in Laconia. 

2. Masc. in the Singular, Masc. and Neut. in the Plural ; 
as, Jocus, a jest, PL -i and -a. Locus, a place, PL -z and -a. 

3. Feminine in the Singular, Neuter in the Plural; as, 
Carbasus, a sail, PL -a. Pergamus, the citadel of Troy, PL -a. 

4. Neuter in the Singular, Masculine in the Plural; as 
Argos, Argos, a city in Greece, PL -i. Elysium, the Ely- 
sian fields, PL ~i. Coelum, heaven, PL -i. 

Note 1. — Argos, in the Singular, is used only in the Nom. and Ace. 

5. Neut. in the Sing, Masc. and Neut. in the Plural; as, 
Frenum, a bridle, PL *i and -a. Kastrum, a rake, PL -f, and -a. 

6. Neuter in the Singular, Feminine in the Plural ; as, 
Balneum, a bath, PL -ce and -a. Epulum, a banquet, PL 
-ce. Delictum, a delight, PL -ce. 

Heteroclites. 

7. Vas, vasis, n. a vessel, of the 3d declension, Plur. vasa, 
vasorum, of the 2d. Jugerum, jugeri, n, an acre, of the 2d 
declension, Plur. jugera, jugerum, of the 3d. Jugeris and 
jugere from jugus, are also found in the Singular. See 
Num.11. 

8. Some Greek Proper nouns are declined both by the se- 
cond Declension and the third, as follows: 



Nom. Gen. Bat. 


Ace. 




Voc. 




Abl. 




o-^Hls, \lt; 


-eum- or 

-ea, 


-eon 


i 
-eu, 




-eo; 


2d Decl. 
3d Decl. 


ffidi p» s > I'idis, %, 


-um, 
-odem, 




-u, 




-o; 

-ode 


2d Decl. 
3d Decl. 


Achilleus, -ei, -eo, 







-eu, 




-eo; 


2d Decl. 


Achilles, -lis, or leos, -li. 


-lem, or 


•len. 


-les,or 


-le 


-le; 


3d Decl. 



36 IRREGULAR NOUNS. § 18 

DOUBLE NOUNS. 

9. To this class may be referred a few double nouns, the 
parts of which are of different declensions. When the two no- 
minatives combine, both parts are declined like a substantive 
and adjective : thus, 

Respublica, a commonwealth, Fern. 
Singular. Plural. 



N. respublica, 
G. reipublicee, 
D. reipublicee, 
Ac. rempublicam, 
V. respublica, 
Ab. republica. 


N. respublicae, 
G. rerumpublicarum, 
D. rebuspublicis, 
Ac. respublicas, 
V. respublicae, 
Ab. rebuspublicis. 


Jusjurandum, 


an oath, Neut. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


N. jusjurandum, 
G. jurisjurandi, 
D. jurijurando, 
Ac. jusjurandum, 
V. jusjurandum, 
^li.jurejurando. 


N. jurajuranda, 

G. 

D. 

Ac. jurajuranda, 
V. jurajuranda, 
Ab. 



When the one part is a nominative, and the other an ob- 
lique case, the part in the nominative only is declined $ as, 

Materfamilias, a mistress of a family \ Fem. 
Singular. 
N. materfamilias, 
G. matrisfamilias,' 
D. matrifamilias, 
Ac. matremfamilias, 
V. materfamilias, 
Ab. matrefamilias. 

Note 2. — Familias is an old form of the genitive, and is governed 
by mater. So Paterfamilias. 

II. DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 
Nouns are defective in Cases or Number. 



§ 18 IRREGULAR NOUNS. 37 

Obs. 1. Indeclinable nouyis, i. e. nouns which have the 
same form in all cases, though commonly ranked under this 
class, do not properly belong to it, because none of the cases 
are wanting. They are such as pondo, n. a pound or pounds ; 
semis, n. the half; mille, a thousand; cape, an onion; opus, 
need or needful, used both as a substantive and an adjective. 
To these may be added any word used as a noun ; as, velle, 
in the phrase, suum velle, (for sua voluntas,) his own inclina- 
tion : Proper names adopted from a foreign language ; as, 
Elizabet, Jerusalem, &c. 

/. Nouns defective in particular cases. 

10. The following nouns are used only in one case.* 

Norn. Fauce, f. the jaws. 

Inquies, f. want of rest. Ingratiis, f. in spite of. 

Abl. Injussu, m. without order. 

Admonltu, m. an admonition. Interdiu, by day. 

Amblge, f. a winding. Natu, m. by birth. 

Casse, m. a net. Noclu, f. by night. 

Diu, by day. Promptu, m. in readiness. 
Ergo, on account of. 

Obs. 2. Many verbal nouns of the Fourth Declension are 
used only in the Ablative Singular ; as, accilu, promptu, &c. 
Diets, f. and nauci, n. are used only in the Gen. Sing. ; as, 
diets gratia, for forms' sake; res nauci, a thing of no value. 
Inficias, f. and incrta, f. or incitas, have only the Ace. Plur 5 
as, inficias ire, to deny; ad incitas reductus, reduced to ex- 
tremities. Ambages, casses and fauces, are regularly declin- 
ed in the Plural. 

11. The following nouns are used only in two cases. 

Norn, and Ace. Gen. and Abl. 

Astu. n. the city of Athens. Compedis, -e, f. a fetter. 

InferiaBj-aSjf. sacrifices to the dead. Impetis, -e, m. force. 

Instar, n. likeness, bigness. Jugeris, -e, n. an acre. 

Suppetiae, -as, f. help. Spontis, -e, f. of one's own accord. 

Norn, and Abl. Verberis,-e, n. a stripe. 

Astus, -u, m. cunning. Repetundarum, -is, f. extortion. 
Vesper, -e, or -i, m. the evening. 

* Nouns which are used only in one case are called Monoptotet; 
in two cases, Diptotes ; in three cases, Triptotes ; in four cases, T* 
traptotes; in five cases, Pentaptotes. 

4 



38 IRREGULAR NOUNS. § 18 

Obs. 3. Compedes, jugera and verbera are regularly de- 
clined in the Plural. Astus is found in the Nom. and Ace. 
Plur. 

12. The following nouns are used only in three Cases. 

Nom. Ace. and Voc. Nom. Ace. and^6Z. 

"Cacoethes, n. a bad custom. Lues. f. a plague. 

Also other Greek nouns in -es. Epos. n. a heroic poem. 
Cete, n. whales. Fas, n. divine law. 

Dica, -am, f. a process ; PI. -as. Grates, f. thanks. 
Nefas, n. impiety. Melos, n. a song; PI. e. 

Nihil, and Nil,n. nothing. Mane, -e, -e. n. the morning. 

Tempe, n. the vale of Tempe. Tabes, f. consumption. 

Vepres, or -is, m. a brier* 

Nom. Gen. and Abl. Tabum, n. putrid gore. 

Nom. Gen. and Ace. Munia, -orum, n. offices. 

Opis, f. Gen. help (from ops,) has eypem and ope in the Ace. and 
Ablative, with the Plural complete, opes, opum, &c. wealth ; and 
preci, f. Dat. a prayer, (from prex,) has precem and prece, with the 
Plural entire, preces, precum, &c. Feminis, n. Gen. the thigh (from 
femen^) has femlni. and -e, in the Dat. and Abl. Singular ; and femina 
in the Nom. Ace. and Voc. Plural. 

Obs. 4. Vepres has the Plural entire ; and tabes and grail- 
bus, the Nominative and Ablative Plural of tabes, and grates 
are also found. 

The following Nouns want the Genitive, Dative and Abla- 
tive Plural. 

Far, n. corn. Mel, n. honey. Rus, n. the country. 

Hiems, f. winter. Metus, m. fear. Thus. tl. frankincense. 

For nouns of the Fifth Declension, see §17. 

13. The following Nouns want the Nominative and Voca- 
tive, and are therefore used only in four Cases. 

Ditionis, f. power. Sordis, f. filth. 

Pecudis, f. a beast. Vicis, f. a change. 

To these may be added daps, f. a dish j frux, f. corn ; and nex, f. 
slaughter, which are seldom used in the Nominative. The Plural of 
frux is entire ; daps wants the Genitive j and nex seems to have the 
Nom. Ace. and Voc. only. 

Chaos, n. a confused mass, wants the Gen. and Dat. Sin- 
gular, and is not used in the Plural. 



§ 18 IRREGULAR NOUNS. 39 

Obs. 5. Pecudis and sordis have the Plural entire: vicis is 
defective in the Genitive ; ditionis has no Plural. 

14. Some Nouns are defective in one Case. 

The following want the Genitive Plural. 

Faex, f. dregs. Proles, f. offspring. 

Fax, f. a torch. Ros, m. dew. 

Labes, f. a stain. Soboles, f. offspring 

Lux, f. light. Sol, m. the sun. 
Os, n. the mouth. 

SatiaSj f. a glut of any thing, and solum, n. the sea, want the Gen. 
Sing, and the Plural entirely. Situs, m. a situation, nastiness, wants 
the Gen. and perhaps the Dat. Sing, and probably the Gen. Dat. and 
Abl. Plural. Nemo, c. nobody, wants theVoc. Sing, and has no Plu- 
ral. 

II. Many Nouns are defective in number. 

15. Some Nouns, from the nature of the things which they 
express cannot be used in the Plural. Such are the names of 
virtues and vices, of arts, herbs, metals, liquors, different 
kinds of corn, abstract nouns, &c. : as, justitia, justice ; lux- 
us, luxury ; mustca, music; apium, parsley; aurum, gold; 
lac, milk; triticum, wheat; magnitude*, greatness ; senectus, 
old age ; macies, leanness, &c. But some of the Nouns in- 
cluded in these classes are occasionally found in the Plural. 

16. The following Masculine Nouns are scarcely used in 
the Plural : 

Aer, aeris, the air. Penus, -i, or -us, all manner of pro 

-flSther. -eris, the sky. visions. 

Fimus, -i, dung. Pontus, -1, the sea. 

Hesperus, -i, the evening star. Pulvis, -eris, dust. 
Limus, -i, mud. Sanguis, -inis, blood. 

Meridies,-iei, mid-day. Sopor, -oris, sleep. 

Mundus, -i, a woman's ornaments. Veternus, -i, a lethargy. 
Muscus, -i, moss. 
Note 3. — Aer., pulvis, and sopor are found in the Plural. 

17. The following Feminine Nouns are scarcely used ill 
the Plural: 

Argilla, -se, potter's earth. Salus, -utis, safety. 

Fames, -is, hunger. Sitis, -is. thirst. 



40 IRREGULAR NOUNS. § 18 

Humus, -i, the ground. Supellex, -ctllis, household furni 

Indoles, -is, a disposition. ture. 

Plebs, -is, the common people. Venia, -se, pardon. 

Pubes, -is, theyouth. Vespera, -33, the evening. 

The following are sometimes found in the Plural: 

Bilis, -is, bile. Pituita, -ae, phlegm. 

Cholera, -se, choler. Pix, -cis, pitch. 

Cutis, -is, the skin. Proles, -is, offspring. 

Fama, -dd,fame. Quies, -etis, rest. 

Gloria, -33, glory. Soboles, -is, offspring. 

Labes, -is, a stain. Tellus, -uris, the earth 
Pax, -cis, peace. 

18. The following Neuter Nouns are scarcely used in the 
Plural: 

Album, -i, a list of names. Foenum, -i, hay. 

Barathrum, -i, any deep place. Gelu, frost, ind. 

Diluculum, -i, the dawn of day. Hilum, -i, the black speck of a bean; 

Ebur, -oris, ivory. a trifle. 

Jubar, -aris, the sunbeam. Penum, -i, and penus, -oris, all 

Justilium, -i, a vacation, the time kinds of provisions. 

when courts do not sit. Pus, puris, matter. 

Lardum, -i, bacon. Sal, salis, salt. 

Lethum, 4-, death. Ver, veris, the spring. 

Lutum, -i, clay. Virus, -i, poison. 

Nectar -aris, nectar. Vitrum, -i, glass. 

Pelagus, -i, the sea. Viscum, -i, the mistletoe. 

Vulgus, -i, the rabble. 

Obs. 6. Ebur, lardum, lutum and pus are found in the Plu- 
ral ; and pelage is found, in some cases, as the Plural of pe- 
lagus ; sal, as a Neuter Noun, is not used in the Plural. 

19. Many Nouns want the Singular ; as the Names of 
feasts, books, games, and many cities and places: as, 

Apollinares, -iwoa., games in honour Olympia, ~drum,the Olympic games. 

of dpollo. Syracusae,-arum, Syracuse. 

Bacchanalia, -ium, and orum, £AeHierosolyma, -orum, Jerusalem. 

feasts of Bacchus. Thermopylae, -arum, the straits of 

BucolIca,-6rum,a book of pastorals. Thermopoylce. 

20. The following Masculine Nouns are scarcely used in 
the Singular: 

Antes, the front rows of vines. Lemures, -um, ghosts, hobgoblins 



§ 18 IRREGULAR NOUNS. 41 

Cancelli, lattices, or windows made Liberi, children. 

with cross-bars. Majores, -urn, ancestors 

Cani, gray hairs. Manes, -ium, ghosts. 

Celeres, -urn, the light-horse. Minores, -um, successors. 

Codicilli, writings. Penates, -um, or -ium, household 

Fasti, orum, or fastus, -uum, ca- gods. 

lendars, in which were marked Posteri, posterity. 

festival-days, fyc. Proceres, -um, the nobles. 

Fori, the gangways of a ship, or Pugillares, -ium, writing tables. 

seats in the Circus. Superi, the gods above. 

Infer;, the gods below. 

Obs. 7. Liberi and proceres (procerem) are also found in 
the Singular. Some of the others, as, inferi, majdres, &c. 
are properly Adjectives, and agree with the Substantives 
which are implied in their signification. 

21. The following Feminine Nouns want the Singular: 

Clitellae, a pannier. Exuviae, spoils. Insidiae, snares. 

Cunae, a cradle. Feriae, holidays. Kalendae, Nonas, Idus, 

Dirae, imprecations. Gerrae, trifles. -uum, names which 

Divitiae, riches. Induciae, a truce. the Romans gave to 

Excubiae, watches. Induviae, clothes to put certain days in each 
Exsequiae, funerals. on. month. 

Lactes, the small guts . Nuptiae, a marriage. Scopae, abesom. 

Lapicidlnae, stone quar- Parietinae, ruinous, Tenebrae, darkness. 

ries. walls. Thermae, hot baths. 

Manubiae, spoils taken Phalerae, trappings. Tricae, toys. 

in war. Primitiae, first fruits. Valvae, folding doors. 

Minae, threats. Reliquiae, a remainder. Vindiciae, a claim of 

Nugae, trifles. Sallnae, salt-pits. liberty, a defence. 

Nundlnae, a market. Scalae, a ladder. 

The following are sometimes found in the Plural : 

Argutiae, quirks, witticisms. Charltes, -um, the Graces. 

Bigae, a chariot drawn by two Facetiae, pleasant sayings. 

horses. Ineptiae, silly stories. 

Trigae, — by three. Praestigiae, enchantments. 

Quadrigae, — by four. Salebrae, rugged places. 
Braccae, breeches. 

22. The following Neuter Nouns want the Singular : 

Acta, public acts or records. Lautia, provisions for the entertain* 

Estiva, summer quarters. ment of foreign ambassadors. 

4* 



42 IRREGULAR NOUNS. § 18 

Anna, arms. Magalia, -urn, cottages. 

Bellaria, -urn, dainties. Moenia, -urn, the walls of a city. 

Bre^ia, -urn, shallows. Orgia, the sacred rites of Bacchus 

Cibaria, victuals. Parentalia, -urn, solemnities at the 
Crepundia, children' s toys. funeral of parents. 

Cunabula, a cradle, an origin. Praecordia, the midriff, the bowels. 

Exta, the entrails. Sponsalia, -um, espousals. 

Februa, vurifvins sarr^ces. Stativa, a standing camp. 

Flabra, blasts of wind. Talaria, -um, winged shoes. 

Fraga, strawberries. Tesqua, rough places. 

Hyberna, winter quarters. Transtra, the seats where the rowers 
Ilia, -um, the entrails. sit in ships. 

Justa, funeral rites. Utensllia, -um, utensils. 
Lamenta, lamentations. 

Obs. 8. Acta and transtra are also found in the Singular. 
Some of the ethers, as, cesttva, brevia, hyberna, stativa, &c. 
are properly Adjectives; and agree with the Substantives 
which are necessary to complete their meaning. 

III. Redundant Nouns. 

23. Nouns are redundant in Termination, Gender, or form 
of Declension: as, arbor, or arbos, a tree ; vulgus, the rabble, 
Masc. or Neut. menda, -ce, or mendum, -i, a fault. 

The most numerous class of Redundant Nouns is compos- 
ed of those which express the same meaning by different ter- 
minations : as, 

«5£ther, -eris, & aethra, -ae, the air. Amaracus, & -um, sweet, mar- 
Alvear, & -e, & -ium, a bee-hive. joram. 
Anclle, & -ium, an oval shield. Maceria, & -ies, iei, a wall. 
Angiportus, -us, & -i, & -um, a Materia, -ae, & -ies, -iei, matter. 

narrow lane. Menda, -ae, & -um, -i, a fault. 

Aphractus, & -um, an open ship. MillUre, & -ium, a mile. 
Aplustre, & -um, the flag, colours. Monltum, & -us, -us, an admonu 
Arbor, V, -os, a tree. tion. 

Baculu,, & -um, a staff. Muria, & -ies, -iei, brine or pickle 

Baiters, & -um, a belt. Nasus, & -um, the nose. 

BaUTds, &-um, a fire- shovel. Obsidio, h -um, a siege. 

Cap *s, & -o, a capon. Ostrea, -ae, & -ea, -orum, an oyster 

Cassis, -Idis, &-Ida, -idae, ahelmet. Peplus, &-um, a veil } a robe. 
Cf pa, & -e, indec. an onion. Penus, -us, & -i ; & -um ; & -ui, 

C.ypeus, & -um, a shield. -oris, provisions. 

Colluvies, k, -io, filth, dirt. Pistrlna, & -um, a grinding- house. 



§ 18 IRREGULAR NOUNS, 43 

m 
Compiges, & -go, a joining. Plebs, & -es, the common people. 

Conger, & -grus, a large eel. Praetextus, -us, & -urn, a pretext. 

Crocus, & -urn, saffron. Rapum, & -a, a turnip. 

Cubitus, & -urn, a cubit. Ruma, & -men, the cud. 

Diluvium, & -es, a deluge. Ruscum, & -us, butcher's broom. 

Elegi, -orum, & -la, an elegy. Segmen, & -mentum, a paring. 

Elephantus, &Elephas, -antis, an Sepes, & seps, a hedge. 

elephant. Sibllus, & -a, -orum, a hissing. 

Esseda, & -um, a chariot. Sinus. & -um, a milk pail. 

Eventus, & -a, -orum, an event. Stramen, & -turn, straw. 
Gausapa, & -e, -es ; & -e, -is 5 & Sufflmen, & -turn, a perfume. 

-um, a rough cloth. Tignus, & -um, a plank. 

Gelu, & -\im, frost. Toral, & -ale, a bed-covering. 

Gibbus, Sc -a; & -er, -eris, or -eri, Tonitrus, -us, & -u, & -uura, thuw 

a bunch, a swelling. der. 

Glutlnum, & -en, glue. Torcllar, & -are, a wine-press. 

Grus, -uis, & -uis, -uis, a crane. Veternus, Sc -um, a lethargy. 
Laurus, -i, & -us, a laurel tree. Viscum, & -us, the mistletoe. 

Obs. 9. Some of the above nouns may be used in either, 
or any of the terminations, and in the Singular or Plural, in- 
differently; some, as aaxilium, laurus, -us, are used only in 
one or two cases ; or in one number, as elegi; while others, 
as praetextus (a pretext) and pratextum (a border,) though 
sometimes synonymous, are commonly employed in a different 
meaning. 

24. The following Nouns have a double meaning in the 
Plural — one in addition to that which generally belongs to 
them in the Singular : 

Singular. Plural. 

Aedes, a temple. Aedes, a house. 

Auxilium, assistance. Auxilia, auxiliary troops. 

Bonum, any thing good. Bona, goods , property. 

Career, a prison. Carceres, the barriers of a race 

course. 

Castrum, a fort. Castra, a camp. 

Comitium, a place in the Roman Comitia. an assembly of the people 

forum, where the comitia were for the purpose of voting. 

held. 

Copia, plenty. Copiae. troops. 

■Oupedia, daintiness. Cupedioe, or -a, dainties. 

acultas. power, ability. Facultites, wealth, property. 



44 OF ADJECTIVES. § 19 

Singular. Plural. 

Fascis, a bundle of twigs, a fagot. Fasces, a bundle of rods carried 

before the chief magistrate of 

Rome. 
Finis, the end of any thins. Fines, the boundaries of a country, 

Fortuna, fortune. Fortunae, an estate, possessions. 

Gratia, grace, favour. Gratiae, thanks. 

Hortus, a garden. Horti, pleasure-grounds. 

Litera, a letter of the alphabet. Literae, a letter, epistle. 
Lustrum, a period of five years. Lustra, dens of wild beasts. 
Natalis, a birth-day. Natiles, birth, descent. 

Opera, labour. Operas, workmen. 

Opis, (Gen.) help. Opes, wealth, power. 

Pars, a part, portion. Partes, a party, faction. 

Plaga, a space, a tract of country. Plagae, nets used by hunters. 
Principinm, a beginning, a first Prineipia, a place in the camp when 

principle, or element. the generaVs tent stood. 

Rostrum, the beak of a bird, the Rostra, a pulpit in the Roman fo- 
sharppart of the provj of a ship, rum, from which orators used to 

address the people. 
Sal, salt. Sales, witticisms. 

Note 4. — All the Nouns in the preceding list, except castrum and 
comitiumj are sometimes found in the Singular, in the sense in which 
they more commonly occur in the Plural. 



* 19. OF ADJECTIVES. 

An Adjective is a word added to a noun to ex- 
press its quality, or to limit its signification ; as, 
vir bonus, a good man ; decem naves, ten ships. 

1. The Accidents of the adjective are gender , number, and 
case, and of most adjectives also comparison. 

2. Adjectives indicate the gender, number and case by 
the termination ; as, bon-us, bon-a, bon-um. § 20. 

3. Participles have the form and declension of adjectives, 
while in time and signification they belong to the verb. 

4. Some adjectives denote each gender by a different ter- 
mination in the nominative, and consequently have three 
terminations. Some have one form common to the masculine 



§ 20 OF ADJECTIVES* 45 

and feminine, and are adjectives of two terminations, and 
some are adjectives of one termination, which is common to 
all genders. 

5. Adjectives are either of the First and Second Declen- 
sion, or of the third only. 

6. Adjectives of three terminations, (except eleven,) are 
of the first and second declension, but those of one or two 
terminations are of the third. 

Exc. Eleven adjectives in -er, of three terminations are 
of the third declension. See § 21. 5* 



§ 20. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND 
DECLENSION, 

Adjectives of the First and Second Declension have the 
Masculine always in -us, or -er, the Feminine always in -a, 
and the Neuter always in -um, as Bonus, Masc. bona, Fern. 
boYium, Neuter, good. 

1. Bonus, bona, bonujvi, good* 



Singular. 




Plural* 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


IV. bon-us, 


-a, 


-urn, 


N. bon-i, 


-83, 


-a, 


G. bon-i, 


-ae, 


-ij 


G. bon-orum 


, -arum, 


-drum, 


D. bon-o, 


-ae, 


-o> 


D. bon-is, 


-is, 


-is, 


Ac. bon-um, 


-am, 


-um, 


Ac. bon-os, 


-as. 


-a* 


V. bon-e, 


-a, 


-um, 


V. bon-i, 


-83, 


-a, 


Ab. bon-o, 


-a, 


-0. 


Ab. bon-is, 


-is, 


-is. 




In the 


same manner decline, 






Altus, high. 


Durus, hard. Lsetus, joyful. 




Cams, dear. 


F idus, fait 


hful. Plenus, full. 





Also all participles, numerals and pronouns in -us; as, 
amdtus, amatUrus, amandus, — primus, secundus, &c. meus 
tuus, suus; g 

Note, 1 > Meus has mi in the vocative masculine . seldom meut. * 



46 



OF ADJECTIVES. 



§20 



M. 



2. Tener, tenera, tenerum, tender. 
Singular, Plural. 



N. tener, 
G. tener-i, 
D. tener-o, 
Ac. tener-um, 
V. tener, 
Ab. tener-o, 



-a, 
-«> 

-33, 

-am, 



N. 
-um, 
-i, 

-°> 
-um, 
-um, 
-o. 



M. 



F. 



N. 



N. tener-i, -ae, -a, 
G. tener-orum, -arum,-orum, 
D. tener-is, -is, -is, 
Ac. tener-os, -as, -a, 
V. tener-i, -ae, -a, 

Ab. tener-is, -is, -is. 



In the same manner decline, 

Asper, rough. Miser, wretched. Exter, foreign. 

Liber, free. Prosper, prosperous. Satur,/iz7£. 

Also Compounds derived from gero and fero; as, laniger, bearing 
wool ,• optfer, bringing help. 

But most adjectives in -er lose the e\ as, 





3. Ater, atra, atrum, black. 




Singular. 




Plural* 


M. 


F. 


N. 


M. F. N. 


iV. ater, 


atra, 


atrum, 


N. atri, atrae, atra, 


G. atri, 


atrae, 


atri, 


G. atrorum, atrarum,atr6rum, 


D. atro, 


atrae, 


atro, 


D. atris, atris, atris 


Ac. atrum 


atram, 


atrum, 


Ac. atros, atras, atra, 


V. ater, 


atra, 


atrum, 


V. atri, atrae, atra, 


Ab. atro, 


atra, 


atro. 


Ab. atris, atris, atris. 



In like manner decline, 

.^Eger, sick. Macer, lean. Sacer, sacred. 

Creber, frequent. Pulcher, fair. Sinister, left. 

Dexter, right, has -tra, 4rum; or -I8ra, -Mrum. 

4. The following adjectives have the Genitive Singular in 
-tus, and the Dative in -t; namely, 
Alius , another of many . Solus, alone. 

Totus, vjhole. 

Ullus, any. 

Unus, one. 

Uter, whether. 



Alter, the other of two 
Alteruter, the one or 

other. 
Neuter, neither 
Nullus, none. 



Uterlibet, which of the 

two you please. 
Uterque, both. 
Utervis, which of the 

two you please. 

m 



In the other cases, they are like bonus, tener or ater; as, 



§ 21 OF ADJECTIVES. 47 

TOTUS, TOTA, TOTUM, whole. 

Singular. Plural. 



M. 


F. 


N. 


M. 


F. 


N. 


N. tot-us, 


-a, 


•urn, 


N. tot-i, 


-ae, 


-a, 


G. tot-ius, 


-iusj 


-ius, 


G. tot-6rura, 


-arum, 


-6 rum 


D. tot-i, 


-i> 


-i 5 


D. tot-is, 


-is, 


-is, 


Ac. tot-um, 


-am, 


■urn, 


Ac. tot-os, 


-as, 


-a, 


V. tot-e, 


-a, 


-um, 


V. tot-i, 


-ae, 


-a, 


Ab. tot-Oj 


-a, 


-0. 


Ab. tot-is, 


-is, 


-is. 



Note.2. Alius has aliud in the Neuter ; and in the Genitive alius, 
contracted for aliius. Dative alii. The genitive in -ius in poetry has 
the i either long or short ; in prose always long. 



§ 21. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

Rule 1. — Adjectives of the Third Declension 
have -e, or -z, in the Ablative Singular; but if the 
Neuter be in -e, the Ablative has -f, only. 

Rule 2. — The Genitive Plural ends in -turn, and 
the Neuter of the nominative, accusative and vo- 
cative in -lit. 

Exc. Except comparatives, which have -um, 
and -a. 

I. Adjectives of one termination. 

1. Felix, happy. 
Singular. Plural. 

M. F. N. M. F. N. 

-ix, N. fel-ices, -ices, -Icia, 

-icis, G. fel-icium, -icium, -icium, 

-ici, D. fel-iclbus, -icibus, -icibus, 

-ix, Ac* fel-ices, -ices, -icia, 

-ix, V. fel-ices, -ices, -icia, 

Ab. fel-lce, or -Ici, &c. Ab. fel-icibus, -icibus, -icibui. 

In like manner decline, 
Trux-ucis, cruel. Velox-ocis. swift. 



N. fel-ix, 


-ix, 


G. fel-icis, 


-icis, 


D. fel-ici, 


-Ici, 


Ac. fel-icem, 


-icem 


V. fel-ix, 


-ix, 



48 




OF ADJECTIVES. 






2. 


Prudens, prudent. 






Singular. 






M. 


F. 


N. 


N. 


prudens, 


prudens, 


prudens, 


G. 


prudent-is, 


prudent-is, 


prudent-is 


D. 


prudent-i, 


prudent-i, 


prudent-i, 


Ac. 


prudent- em, 


prudent- em, 


prudens, 


V. 


prudens, 


prudens, 


prudens, 


Ab 


prudent-e, or -i. 


prudent-e, or -i 
Plural. 


prudent-e, or 


N. 


prudent-es, 


prudent-es, 


prudent-ia, 


G. 


prudent-ium, 


prudent-ium. 


prudent-ium, 


D. 


prudent-ibus, 


prudent-ibus, 


prudent-ibus, 


Ac. 


prudent-es, 


prudent-es, 


prudent-ia, 


V. 


prudent-es, 


prudent-es, 


prudent-ia, 


Ab 


prudent-ibus, 


prudent-ibus, 


piudent-ibus. 



§21 



In like manner decline, 

Ingens-tis great, Recens, fresh, Clemens, gentle. Also all partici 
pies in -ns; as, amans, docens, &c. 

Note. — Participles have oftener -e than 4 in the Ablative Singular 
and in the Ablative absolute have -e, only. 

II. Adjectives of hvo terminations. 

3. Mitis, mite, meek. 



Singidar. 




Plural. 




M. 


F. 


N. M. 


N. 


N. mit-is, 


-is 5 , 


-e, 


N. mit-es, -es, 


-ia, 


G. mit-is, 


-is, 


-is, 


G. mit-ium, -ium, 


-ium, 


D. mit-i, 


-h 


-h 


D. mit-ibus, -ibus, 


-ibus, 


Ac. mit-em, 


-em, 


-e, 


Ac. mit-es, -es, 


-ia, 


V. mit-is, 


-is, 


"?' 


V. mit-es, -es, 


-ia, 


Ab. mit-i, 


'h 


-i. 


Ab. mit-ibus, -ibus, 


-ibua. 




In the 


same manner decline, 




Agilis, active. 


Debllis, weak. Talis, such. 




Brevis, short. 


Incolumis 


safe. Utilis, useful. 





§2T 



OF ADJECTIVES. 



49 



4. Comparative Degree, — Mitiorjmitics, more meek. 





Singular. 




M. F. 


N. 


miti-or, -or, 


G. 


miti-oris, -oris, 


D. 


miti-ori, -ori, 


Ac. 


miti-orem, -orem, 


V. 


miti-or, -or, 



N. 



-us, 

-oris 

-ori, 

-us, 

-us 



Ab. miti-ore, or -ori, &c. 



-"7 



Plural* 
M. F, N. 

N. miti-ores, -ores, ora, 
G. miti-orum, -orura, -orum, 
D. miti-oribus,-oribus,-oribus 
Ac. miti-ores, -ores, -ora, 
V. miti-ores, -ores, -ora, 
Ab. miti-oribus,-oribus,dribu3 



In like manner decline, 

Brevior, shorter. Molior, softer. Altior, higher. 

Fortior, braver. Durior, harder. and all other comparatives. 

jBxc. Plus, more, has only the Neuter Gender in the Sin- 
gular, and is thus declined. 



Singular. 
Neut. 
N. plus, 
G. pluris, 

D. - 

Ac. plus, 

V. 

Ab. plur-e, or -i. 



Plural. 
F. 

-es, 
-ium, 
-ibus, 
-es, 



M. 
N. plur-es, 
G. plur-ium, 
D. plur-ibus, 
Ac. plur-es, 

V. . 

Ab, plur-ibus? -ibus, -ibus. 



N. 
-a, and -ia, 
-ium, 
-ibus, 
-a, and -ia. 



Note. — Pluria is hardly ever used in the Nom. Plur. Neuter. Its 
compound, complures, has no singular. 

III. Adjectives of three terminations. 

5. Acer, or agris> acre, sharp. 

Plural. 
M. F. N. 

a-ere&, -cres, -cria, 
a-crium, -crium, -crium, 
a-cribus,-cribus, -cribus, 
Ac. a-cres, -cres, -cria, 
a-cres, -cres, -cria, 
Ab, a-cribus, ~cribus,-cribu«. 
5 





Singular. 








M. F. 


N. 




N. 


a-cer, v -cris, -cris, 


-ere, 


N. 


G. 


a-cris, -cris, 


-cris, 


G. 


D. 


a-cri, -cri, 


-cri, 


D. 


Ac. 


a-crem, -crem, 


-ere, 


Ac 


V. 


a-cer, v -cris, -cris, 


-ere, 


V. 


Ab. 


a-cri, -cri, 


-cri* 


Ab 



50 OF ADJECTIVES § 21 

Besides acer, the following ten are declined in this way. 

Alacer, cheerful. Celer, swift. Pedester, on foot. 

Campester, belonging Equester, belonging to Saluber, wholesome. 

to the plain. a horse. Sylvester, woody. 

Celeber, famous. Paluster, marshy. Volucer, swift. 

Exceptions in the Ablative Singular and Genitive 

Plural. 

Exc. 1. The following adjectives have -e only in the Ab- 
lative singular, and -um in the genitive plural : viz. 

Coelebs, unmarried. Pauper, poor. Superstes, surviving. 

Compos, master of. Juvenis, young. * Tricorpor, three-bo- 
* Concolor, of the same Pubis, marriageable. died. 

color. Senex, old. * Tricuspis, three- 

Hospes, strange. Sospes, safe. pointed 

Impos, unable. Impubes, beardless. * Tripes, three-footed. 

Vetus, old. 

* The other compounds of color, corpor, cuspis and pes, have like 
wise -e and -um. 

Note. — Cozlebs, compos, impos and superstes, have sometimes -i in 

the ablative. Vetus has commonly veteri, but always vetlra and vete'r 9 
um in the plural. 

Exc. 2. The following adjectives have -e or -z in the abla- 
tive singular, and -um in the Genitive Plural : viz. 

Ales, winged. Degener, degenerate. Prseceps, headlong. 

Anceps, double. Dives, rich, Supplex, suppliant. 

Artlfex, artificial. Inops, poor. Uber, fertile. 

Celer, swift. Memor, mindful. Vigil, watchful. 

* Compar, equal. Particeps, sharing. Volucris, swift. 
Consors, sharing. 

* Dispar, different, impar, unequal, and separ, separate, have also 
-um. Par has -i only in the ablative, and -ium in the Genitive Plural, 
but its compounds have in the poets -e or -i, indifferently. 

Note. — Celer, memor, and volucris have -t only in the Abl. and vo- 
lucris and vigil have sometimes -um in the Genitive Plural. 

Locuples, rich, has locupUtum, or locuplettum. 



§ 22 OP ADJECTIVES. 51 

§ 22. IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 
Irregular adjectives are Defective or Redundant. 

I. DEFECTIVE ADJECTIVES- 

1. Quot, how many? tot, so many ; aliquot, some; quot- 
quot, and quotcunque, how many soever ; totidem, just so 
many ; are indeclinable, and used only in the Plural Number. 
Nequam, worthless, is also indeclinable, but used in both 
Numbers. 

2. Exspes, hopeless ; and potis, pote, able, are used only 
in the Nominative. They are of all Genders, and the latter 
is also found joined with Plural Nouns. 

Tantundem, as much, has tantldem, in the Genitive, and 
tantundem, m. and n. in the Nominative and Accusative Sin- 
gular. 

Necesse, or -urn, necessary ; and volupe, pleasant, are used 
only in the Nominative and Accusative Singular. 

3. Mactus, -e, and PI. -i, a common word of encourage- 
ment, brave! gallant! is used only in the Nominative, and 
Vocative Singular, and Nominative Plural. 

Plus, more, in the Singular is Neuter only ; wants the Da- 
tive, and probably the Vocative ; has -e only in the Ablative, 
and -a, seldom -ia, in the Nominative, Accusative, and Voca- 
tive Plural Neuter. 

Primoris, Gen. first, wants the Nominative and Voc. Sin- 
gular, and the Nom. Ace. and Voc. Plural Neuter ; likewise 
seminecis, half dead, which is not used in the Neuter and 
has seminecum, in the Genitive Plural. 

Fauci, few, and plerlque, the most part, are seldom used 
in the Singular. 

4. The following classes of words want the Vocative : viz, 
Partitives; as, quidam, alius: Relatives; as, qualis, quart- 
tus : Negatives ; as, nullus, neuter : Interrogatives ; as, quo- 
tus ? uter ? 

Except aliquis, quicunque, quiltbet, and quisque. See § 37. 

5. The following Adjectives of one termination in -er, -es, 
-or, -OS, and -fex, with the others contained in the subjoined 
list, are scarcely used in the Nominative, Accusative, and 
Vocative Plural Neuter. 



62 OF ADJECTIVES. § S?3 

Adjectives in ER : as, pauper ; puber^ celer, degener f uber. 

Adjectives in FEX : as, ariifex, carmfex. 

Adjectives in OR : as, memor, concolor, bicorpor* 

Adjectives in ES : as, ales f diveSj locuples, sospeSf super* 
stes, deses, reses, hebes, teres, prcepes. 

Adjectives in OS : as, compos, impds, exoS. 

Also pubis, impubis, supplex, comis, inops, vigil f sons, til* 
sons, intercus, redux, and perhaps some others. 

Cceter. of cceterus, the rest, is scarcely used in the Nom, 
Sing. Masculine. 

Victrix, victorious, and ultrix, revengeful, are Feminine 
only in the Sing, but Fern, and Neut. in the Plural ; victrt* 
ces, victricia. 

REDUNDANT ADJECTIVES. 

6. Some Adjectives compounded of clivus,frenum, bacillum, arma f 
jugum, limus, somnus, and animus, have two forms of Declension j 
one in -us, of the First and Second Declension ; and another in -is, of 
the Third : as, acclivus, -a, -um, and acclivis, -e, steep ; imbecillus , 
and imbeciUis, weak; semisomnus, and semisomnis , half-sleeping; 
exanimus and exanimis, dead. Also hilaris, and hiiarus, merry. 

Obs. Some of these Compounds do not admit of this variation : 
as, magnanimus , Jtexanimus, effrenus, levi&omnus, not magnanimis, 
Sfc. On the contrary, pusillanimis, injugis, illimis, insomnis, exsom- 
nis, are used, and not pusillanimus, fyc. Semianimis, inermis, subli- 
mits, acclivis, declivis, proctitis, are more common than semianimw, 
4rc. Inanimis and bijugis are scarcely used. 



§ 23. EXERCISES ON ADJECTIVES. 

1. Adjectives and Substantives to be declined together* 

Parva casa, a small cottage. Alta arbor, a high tree. 

Clarus poeta, a famous poet. Priscus mos, an ancient custom, 

Pulchrafilia, a beautiful daughter. Callida aestas, a warm summer 

Dulce pomum, a sweet apple. Tutus portus, a safe harbour. 

Docilis puer, a docile boy. Nobile carmen, a noble poem. 

Breve sevum, a short life. Antiqua urbs, an ancient city 

Capax antrum, a capacious den. Magna dos, a great dowry. 



§ 24 OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 53 

Magnum opus, a great work. Cava navis, a hollow ship. 

Serenus dies, a clear day. Culpatus Paris, wicked Paris. 

Densa nubes, a thick c'oud. Miser Tros, a miserable Trojan. 

Fidus pastor, a faithful shepherd. Infelix Dido, unhappy Dido. 

2. Translate the, following words into English accord- 
ing to their number and case : 

Operis magni, Urbem antiquam, Urbis antiquae, 

Claro poetae, Poetis claris, Paridi culpato, 

Diei sereno, Pueri dociles, Arbores altse, 

Diei sereni, Dote magna, Trois miseri, 

Densis nubibus, Morum priscorum, Dido infelici, 

Fidi pastoris, Carminis nobilis, Portibus tutis, 

JKyo brevi, Callida restate, Dulcium pomorum. 

3. Translate the following phrases into Latin, observing 
to put the adjective in the same gender, number and case with 
the substantive. The words will be found in the above list. 
To a small cottage, Of ancient customs, In a great work, 
Of a capacious den, Of an ancient city, With wicked Paris, 
From lofty trees, To a great work, A harbour safe, 
For unhappy Dido, O wicked Paris, In a clear day, 

In a hollow ship, Faithful shepherds, Of small cottages, 
A wretched Trojan, In a short life, To a thick cloud, 

With thick clouds, With a sweet apple, With high trees, 
From a clear day, With clear days, Beautiful daughters, 
Of sweet apples, Noble poems, In a warm summer, 

High trees, Of ancient cities, Of a short life, 

With great dowries, In small cottages, With docile boys. 



§ 24. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

Numeral adjectives are those which signify number. In 
Latin, they are divided into four classes : viz. 

1. Cardinal, which express number simply, or how many \ 
as, one, two, three, four, &c. 

2. Ordinal, denoting which one of a number ; as, first, 
second, third, fourth, &c. 

3. Distributive, denoting how many to each J as, lini 5 
two by two, or, two to each. 

4. Multiplicative, denoting how many fold. 

5* 



64 



OP NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



§24 



I. CARDINAL NUMBERS. 



The Cardinal or Principal numbers, are : 



Unus, 




one. 


I. 


Duo, 




two. 


II. 


Tres, 




three. 


III. 


Quatuor, 




four. 


IIII, or IV. 


Quinque, 




five. 


V. 


Sex, 




six. 


VI. 


Septem, 




seven. 


VII. 


OctOj 




eight. 


VIII. 


Novem, 




nine. 


Villi, or IX 


Decern, 




ten. 


X. 


Undecim, 




eleven. 


XL 


Duodecim, 




twelve. 


XII. 


Tredecim, 




thirteen. 


XIII. 


Quatuordecim, 




fourteen. 


XIIII, or XIV. 


Quindecim, 




fifteen. 


XV. 


Sedecim, or Sexdecim, 


sixteen. 


XVI. 


Septemdecim, 




seventeen. 


XVII. 


Octodecim, 




eighteen. 


XVIII. 


Novemdecim, 




nineteen. 


XVIIII, or XIX 


Viginti, 




twenty. 


XX. 


Viginti unus, or 
Unus et viginti. 


,\ 


twenty-one. 


XXL 


Viginti duo, or > 
duo et viginti, &c. $ 


twenty -two. 


XXII. 


Triginta, 




thirty. 


XXX. 


Quadraginta, 




forty. 


XXXX, or XL, 


Quinquaginta, 




fifty- 


L. 


Sexaginta, 




sixty. 


LX. 


Septuaginta, 




seventy. 


LXX. 


Octoginta, 




eighty. 


LXXX. 


Nonaginta, 




ninety. 


LXXXX, or XC 


Centum, 




a hundred. 


C. 


Centum unus, or 
centum et unus, 


&c. \ 


a hundred and one, 


, $c. CI. 


Ducenti, -ae, -a, 




two hundred. 


CC. 


Trecenti, 




three hundred. 


CCC. 


Quadringenti, 




four hundred. 


CCCC. 


Quingenti, 




five hundred. 


10 or D. 


Sexcenti, 




six hundred. 


IOC, or DC. 


Septingenti, 




seven hundred. 


IOCC, or DCC. 


Octingenti, 




eight hundred. 


IOCCC. or DCCC 



§24 



OP NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



55 



Nongenti, 

Mille, 

Duo millia, or 

bis mille. 
Quinque millia, or } 

quinquies mille, $ 
Decern millia, or 

decies mille, 
Quinquaginta millia, or 

quinquairies mille, 
Centum millia, or 

centies mille, 



nine hundred. 
a thousand. 

two thousand, 
five thousand, 
ten thousand, 
fifty -thousand. 



IOCCCC, or DCCCC. 
CIO, or M. 

CIO CIO, or MM. 

130, or V. 

CCIOO, orX. 

1000. or L. 



a hundred thousand. CCCI000, or C. 



OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Eighteen and nineteen are more properly expressed by 
duodeviginli, and undexiginti ; from which Ordinals, Dis- 
tributives and Adverbs are likewise formed. The same 
form is also used in the corresponding numbers of each of 
the other decades ; as, duodetriginta, twenty-eight $ unde- 
triginta, twenty-nine, &c. 

2. The Cardinal numbers, except unus and mille, want the 
singular. 

3. Unus, as a numeral, is not used in the plural except 
when joined with a substantive that wants the Singular ; as, 
una mcenia, one wall ; or when several particulars are con- 
sidered as one whole ; as una vestimenta, one suit of clothes. 
Unus is declined like totus, § 20. 4. 

Duo, two, and Tres, three, are thus declined. 



Plural. 
M. F. 



N. 



Plural. 




M. 


F. 


N. 


N. tres, 


tres, 


tria, 


G. trium, 


trium, 


trium, 


D. tribus, 


tribus, 


tribus, 


Ac. tres, 


tres, 


tria, 


V. tres, 


tres, 


tria, 


Ah. tribus, 


tribus, 


tribus. 



N. duo, duae, duo, 

G. duorum, duarum, duorum, 
D. duobus, duabus, duobus, 
Ac, duos,-o, duas, duo, 
V. duo, duae, duo, 
Ah. duobus, duabus, duobus. 

Ambo, both, is declined like duo. 

4. All the Cardinal numbers from quatuor to centum, in- 
clusive, are indeclinable ; and from centum to mille, they are 
declined like the plural of bonus, § 20. 1. 

5. Mille, when placed before a Genitive Plural is a sub- 
stantive indeclinable in the singular ; in the plural it is de- 



56 OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. § 24 

clined like the plural of sedile, § 12. 8 ; thus, millia y milli- 
um, millibus, &c. When it has a substantive in any other 
case, than the Genitive Plural joined to it, it is a plural adjec- 
tive, indeclinable; as mille homines , a thousand men 5 bis 
mille hominibus, with two thousand men. 

ROMAN METHOD OF NOTATION BY LETTERS. 

6. The capital letters used by the Romans to denote num- 
bers, were C. I. L. V. X. which are therefore called Nume- 
ral Letters. I, denotes one ; V, five; X, ten; L, fifty ; 
and C, a hundred. By the various combinations of these let- 
ters, all numbers were expressed as follows. 

The repetition of a letter repeats its value ; thus, II, sig- 
nifies two; III, three ; XX, twenty ; XXX, thirty ; CC, two 
hundred ; CCC, three hundred^ &c. V and L are never re- 
peated. 

When a letter of less value is placed before another of 
greater value, the value of the less is taken from the greater. 
When placed after it, the value of the less is added to the 
greater; thus. 

IV. Four. V. Five, VI. Six, 

IX. Nine, X. Ten, XI. Eleven, 

XL. Forty. L. Fifty, LX. Sixty, 

XC. Ninety. C. A hundred, CX. a hundred & ten 

A thousand was marked CIO, which was afterwards ex- 
pressed by M, the initial of Mille. Five hundred is marked 
10, afterwards changed into D. 

The annexing of to 10, makes its value ten times great- 
er ; thus, 100, denotes five thousand ; 1000, fifty thousand. 

In like manner a C prefixed, together with another an- 
nexed to the numerals CIO, always increases the value 
tenfold; thus, CIO, a thousand; CCIOO, ten thousand; 
CCCI000, a hundred thousand. Any higher number than 
this, according to Pliny, was expressed by repetition ; thus, 
CCCI000, CCCI000, two hundred thousand. 

Thousands are sometimes expressed by a line drawn over 
the numeral letters 5 thus, III, denotes three thousand, X, 
ten thousand, &c. 



§24 



OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



57 



II. ORDINAL NUMBERS. 



The Ordinal Numbers are formed from the cardinal 5 they 
all end in -us, and are declined like bonus ; § 20. 1 . as, pri- 
mus, first, secundus, second, &c. See the following table. 



III. DISTRIBUTIVE NUMBERS. 

The Distributive Numbers are all plural and declined like 
the plural of bonus, except that they usually have -iim for 
-drum, in the genitive plural ; as, singuli, one by one, or, 
one to each 5 bini, two by two, or, two to each. 

The following table contains the Ordinal and Distributive 
numbers, and the corresponding Numeral Adverbs. 



Ordinal. 

1. Primus, first. 

2. Secundus, second. 

3. Teriius, third. 

4. Quartus, &c. 

5. Quintus, 

6. Sextus, 

7. Septimus, 

8. Octavus, 

9. Norms, 

10. Declmus, 

11. Undeclmus, 

12. Duodecimus, 

13. Tertius declmus, 

14. Quartus declmus, 

15. Quintus declmus, 

16. Sextus declmus, 

17. Septimus declmus, 

18. Octavus declmus, 
19 Nonus declmus, 

20. Viceslmus, or > 

vigeslmus, > 

21. Viceslmus primus, 

22. Viceslmus secundus, 
30. Tricesslmus, or > 

trigeslmus, $ 
40. Quadragesimus, 
50. Quinquagesimus, 



Distributive. 
Singuli, one by one. 
Bini, two by two. 
Terni, or trini, &c. 
Quaterni, 
Quini, 
Seni, 
Septeni, 
Octoni, 
Noveni, 
Deni, 
Undeni, 
Duodeni, 
Terni deni, 
Quarterni deni, 
Quini deni, 
Seni deni, 
Septeni deni, 
Octoni deni, 
Noveni deni, 

Viceni, 

Viceni singuli. 
Viceni bini, 

Triceni, > 

Quadrageni, 

Quinquageni, 



Numeral Adverbs. 
Semel, once. 
Bis, twice. 
Ter, thrice. 
Quater, four times. 
Quinquies, &c. 
Sexies . 
Septies. 
Octies. 
Novies. 
Decies. 
Undecies. 
Duodecies. 
Terdecies. 
Quaterdecies. 
Quindecies. 
Sedecies. 
Decies et septies. 
Decies et octies. 
Decies et nonies. 

Vicies. 

Semel et vicies, 
Bis et vicies, &c. 

Tricies. 

Quadragies. 
Quinquagies 



58 



OP NUMEHAL ADJECTIVES 



§24 



60. 

70. 

80. 

90. 
100. 
200. 
300. 
400. 

500. 
600. 
700. 
800. 
900. 



Sexageslmus, 
Septuagesimus, 
Octogeslmus, 
Nonageslmus, 
Centesimus, 
Ducenteslmus, 
Trecentesimus, 
Quadri ngente- > 
slmus, $ 

Quingenteslmus, 
Sexcenteslmus, 
Septingenteslmus, 
Octingentesimus, 
Nongenteslmus, 



1000. MiUesImus, 
2000. Bis millesimus, 



Sexageni, 

Septageni, 

Octogeni, 
Nonageni, 

Centeni, 
Duceni, 

Treceni, or trecenteni, 
Quadringeni, or \ 
quadringenteni, $ 
Quingeni, 

Sexceni, or Sexcenteni, 
Septingeni, 
Octingeni, 
Nongeni, 

Milleni, or > 

singula millia, ) 

Bis milleni, or \ 

bina millia, $ 



Sexagies. 

Septuagies. 

Octogies. 

Nonagies 

Centies. 

Ducenties. 

Trecenties. 

Quadringenties. 

Quingenties. 

Sexcenties. 

Septingenties. 

Octingenties. 

Noningenties. 

Millies. 
Bismillies. 



of. 



, Instead of primus, prior is used, if only two are spoken 
Alter is often used for secundus. 



Twenty-first, thirty-first, &c. are often expressed by unus 
et vicestmvs, unus et tricestmus, &c. and twenty-second, &c. 
by duo , or alter et viceshnus, &c., in which duo is indecli- 
nable. In the other compound numbers, the larger precedes 
without et, or the smaller with et; as, viceszmus quartus, or, 
quartus et vicestmus. 

8. Distributives are sometimes used by the poets for car- 
dinal numbers ; as, bina spicula, two darts. In this sense 
it is often found in the singular ; as, centena arbore, for cen- 
tum arbortbus. Virg. 

9. The singular of some distributives is sometimes used in 
the sense of a multiplicative ; as binus, two-fold, &c. 

IV MULTIPLICATIVE NUMBERS. 

Multiplicatives denote how manifold ; they all end in -ex, 
and are declined likefeliz, § 21. 1. They are as follows: 



Simplex, single. 
Duplex, double. 
Triplex, threefold 



Quadruplex, fourfold. 
Quintuplex, fivefold. 
Centuplex, a hundredfold. 



§ 25 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 59 

10. To these classes may be added, 

1st. Proportionals, which denote how many times one thing 
is greater than another ; as, duplus, twice as great. 

2d. Temporals, which demote time ; as, bimus, two years 
old ; biennis, of two years' continuance. 

3d. Those which denote how many parts a thing contains; 
as, binarius, of two parts. 

4th. Interrogates , as quot, how many? quotas, of what 
number? quoteni, how many each? quoties, how 
many times ? which have for their correlatives, tot, 
totidem, &c. 

11. The learner should carefully notice the distinction be- 
tween the cardinal and distributive numerals in their ordina- 
ry use. Thus, for example, Duo consules viginti naves ha- 
bebant, means, "the two consuls together had twenty ships," 
i. e. twenty in all, or ten each; but Duo consules vicenas 
naves habebant, means "the two consuls had twenty ships 
each" or forty in all. 



§ 25. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives have three degrees of comparison, 
the Positive, Comparative and Superlative. 

The Positive expresses a quality simply ; as, bonus, good. 
The Comparative asserts it in a higher or lower degree in 
one object than in another. The Superlative asserts it in the 
highest or lowest degree in one object compared with several; 
as, Gold is heavier than silver ; it is the most precious of the 
metals. Hence, those adjectives only can be compared whose 
signification admits the distinction of more and less. 

The Superlative is often used to express a very high or 
low degree of a quality, without implying comparison ; as, 
vir doctissimus, "A very learned man;" hortus amcenissi- 
mus, "A most delightful garden." Thus used, it is called 
the Superlative of eminence, and is commonly translated with 
the article a, or an; — when comparison is implied, the article 
the must be used. 

The Comparative is always of the third declension, and 
declined like mitior, § 21. 4. The superlative is always of 
the first and second, and declined like bonus, § 20. 1. 



60 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 



§25 



RULES OF COMPARISON. 

1. The Comparative is formed from any case 
of the positive ending in -i, by adding -or, for 
the Masculine and Feminine, and -us for the 
Neuter; as, 

Positive. Comparative. 

M. F. N. 

duri-or, duri-us, harder. 
brevi-or, brevi-us, shorter. 
audaci-or, audaci-us, bolder. 

is formed from any case 
of the positive ending in -i, by changing -i into 
-issimus. 



Durus, hard, (duri,) 
Brevis, short, (brevi,) 
Audax, bold, (audaci,) 

2. The Superlative 



Superlative. 
durissimus-a-um, hardest. 
brevissimus-a-um, shortest. 
audacissimus, boldest. 



Positive. 
Durus, hard, (duri,) 
Brevis, short, (brevi,) 
Audax, bold, (audaci,) 

Exc. If the positive end in -er, the superlative 
is formed by adding -rimus; as, 

Positive. Superlative. 

Nom. Pulcher, fair, pulcher-rimus-a-um, fairest. 

Nom. Pauper, poor, pauper-rimus-a-um, poorest. 

Hence these adjectives will be compared thus: 



Pos. 


Comp. 


Sup. 




Durus, 


durior, 


durissimus. Hard, harder, 


hardest. 


Brevis, 


brevior, 


brevisslmus, Short, shorter, 


shortest 


Audax, 


audacior, 


audacissimus, Bold, bolder, 


boldest 


Pulcher, 


pulchrior, 


pulcherrlmus, Fair, fairer, 


fairest. 


Pauper, 


pauperior, 


pauperrlmus, Poor, poorer, 


poorest 




In the same manner compare, 




Altus, 


high. 


Felix, happy. Levis, light. 




Durus. 


, hard. 


Lentus, slow. Sapiens, wise 




Capax 


, capacious. 


Gravis, heavy. Vehemens, vehement. 


Creber, frequent. 


Integer, entire. Prudens, prudent. 


Firmu 


s, strong. 


Fortis, brave. 'Liber, free. 




Piger, 


slow 


Velox, swift Doctus. learned. 



§ 26 


COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 61 


§ 26. IRREGULAR & DEFECTIVE COMPARISONS. 


Pos. 


Comp. Sup. 




Bonus, 


melior, optlmus ; Good, 


better, best. 


Magnus, 


major, maximus ; Great, 


greater, greatest 


Malus, 


pejor, pessimus; Bad, 


worse, worst. 


Multus, 


plus, n. plurimus; Muck, 


more, most. 


Parvus, 


minor, minimus 5 Little, 


less, least. 



Obs, Plus has only the neuter in the singular. In the plu- 
ral it is regular, and is declined as, § 21. 4. Exc. 

1. The following Adjectives form the Superlative in ~limus: 



Facllis, easy. 
Gracilis, lean. 
Humllis, low. 
Imbecillis, weak. 
Simllis, like. 



facilior, 

gracilior, 

humilior, 

imbecillior, 

similior, 



facilllmus. 

gracilllmus. 
humilllmus. 
imbecilllmus. 
simillimus. 



2. The following Adjectives have the Comparative regular > 
but the Superlative irregular. 

Citer, near. citerior, 

Dexter, right, dexterior, 

Exter, outward, exterior, 

Inferus, low, inferior, 

Interus, inward, interior, 

Maturus, ripe, maturior, 

Posterus, behind, posterior, 

Sinister, left. sinisterior, 

Superus, high, superior, 

Vetus, old, veterior, 

Note. — Dives, rich, has commonly ditior and ditissimus, for its 
Comparative and Superlative ; contracted for divitior and divitis' 
s-imus. 

3. Compounds in dtcus, ftcus, loquus, and volus, form the 
Comparative in -entior, and the Superlative in -entissxmus. 



citlmus. 

dextimus. 

extremus, or extlmus. 

inf Imus, or imus. 

intlmus. 

maturrlmus, or matnrisslmus. 

postremus, or postumus. 

sinistimus. 

supremus, or summus. 

veterrlmus. 



Maledlcus. railing, 
Beneflcus, beneficent, 
Mirificus, wonderful^ 
Magniloquus, boasting, 
Benevolus, benevolent, 



maledicentior, 

beneficentior, 

mirificentior, 

magniloquentior, 

benevolentior. 

6 



maledicentisslmus* 

beneficentisslmus. 

mirificentisslmus. 

magniloquentisslmus. 

benevolentisslmus. 



62 COMPARISON OP ADJECTIVES. § 26 

Note. — Minficus has also mirif icissimus in the Superlative. The 
Compounds of loquus are not found in the Superlative. 

4. The following Adjectives want the Positive: 

Deterior, worse. deterrlmus. Propior, nearer, proximus. 

Ocior, swifter, occisslmus. Ulterior, farther, ultimus. 

Prior, former, primus. 

5. The following Adjectives want the Comparative : 

Inclytus, renowned, inclytisslmus. Par, equal, parissimus. 

Invictus, invincible, invictissimus. Persuasus, persuaded, per- 

Merltus, deserving, meritissimus. suasissimus. 

Novus, new, novissimus. Sacer, sacred, sacerrimus. 

Nuperus, late, nuperrimus. 

6. The following Adjectives want the Superlative: 

Adolescens, young, adolescentior. Opimus, rich, opimior. 

Diuturnus, lasting, diuturnior. Pronus, bending down, pronior. 

Ingens, huge, ingentior. Satur, full, saturior. 

Juvenis, young, junior. Senex, old, senior. 

Note. — The Superlative of juvZnis, or adolescens, is supplied by 
minimus natu, the youngest ; senex takes maxlmus natu, the oldest. 

7. Almost all Adjectives in -Uis, (penult long,) -alts, and 
-lilis, want the Superlative ; as, civllis, civilior, civil ; regalis 
regalior, regal ; Jlebilis^ -ior^ lamentable. 

Note. — Some Adjectives of these terminations have the superlative 
also ; as cequdlis ,frugalis , hospitdlis, liberdlis, vocctli — affabilis, ama- 
bilis, habilis, ignobilis, mirabilis, mobilis, mutabilis, nobilis^ stabilis. 

Some Adjectives of other terminations also want the Superlative : 
as, arcdnus, -ior, secret ; declivis, -ior, bending downwards ; longin- 
quus, -ior, far off ,• propinquus, -ior, near ; salutdris, healthful, salu* 
tar ior. 

Anterior, former, and sequior, worse, are found only in the compa- 
rative. 

Nequam, worthless (indeclinable,) has nequior, nequissimus. 

8. Many Adjectives, which are capable of having their sig- 
nification increased, do not admit of comparison : as, 

Jllbus, white ; almus, gracious ; egenus, needy ; lacer, torn ; memor, 
mindful j mirus, wonderful ; precox, early ripe ; sospes, safe, &c. 



§ 27 DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 63 

Participles in -rus and -dus, and Adjectives in -ivus, -inus, -drus and 
-imus : as, fugitivus, fugitive ; matutlnus, early; canorus, shrill ; le* 
gitimus, lawful. 

Adjectives compounded with Nouns and Verbs : as, versicolor, of 
various colors ; degtner, degenerating ; pestifer , poisonous, &c. 

Diminutives, which, in themselves, involve a sort of comparison : 
as, tenellus, somewhat tender ; majusculus, somewhat big. 

9. Adjectives, in which a vowel precedes -us, except -quus, form the 
Comparative by putting magis before the Positive ; and the Super- 
lative, by putting valde or maxime before it : as, arduus, high ; ma- 
gis arduus, higher ; valde, or maxime arduus, highest, or very high. 



§ 27. DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 

Derivative Adjectives are formed chiefly from nouns, from 
other adjectives, and from verbs. 

1. Those derived from nouns are called Denominatives. 
They are such as aureus, golden; capitdlis, capital, relating 
to the life ; puerllis, boyish ; animosus, full of courage, &c. 
from aurum, caput, puer, animus, &c. 

2. Those derived from adjectives are also called denomina- 
tives; they are chiefly diminutives ; as, dulciculus, sweetish ; 
duriusculus, somewhat hard, &c. from dulcis, durus, &c. 

3. Adjectives derived from verbs are called Verbal adjec- 
tives. They commonly end in -bundus, -idus, -bilis, -ilis, 
•itius, and -ax; as, errabundus, given to wandering; rapt- 
dus, rapid ; credibilis, credible ; flexibilis, easy to be bent ; 
fictitius, feigned ; capax, capacious, &c. from erro, rapio, 
credo, fleet o, Jingo, capio, &c. 

4. Participles divested of the idea of time and expressing 
merely a quality, become adjectives, and are capable of com- 
parison; as, amans, fond of ; amantior, amantisstmus ; doc- 
tus, learned ; doctior, doctissimus. These are called parti' 
cipial Adjectives. 

Adjectives are also derived from adverbs and prepositions; 
as, hodiernus, conirarius, &c. from hodie, contra, &c. 



64 OF PRONOUNS. § 28 

§ 28. OF PRONOUNS. 
A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, 

In Latin there are eighteen simple pronouns, namely, Ego, 
tu, sui; ille, ipse, iste, hie, is, quis, qui; mens, tuns, suus, 
noster, vester; nostras, vestras and cujas. 

Of these, Ego, tu, sui, are substantive or personal pro- 
nouns, the rest are adjectives. 

SUBSTANTIVE OR PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

The Substantive or Personal pronouns take the gender of 
the noun for which they stand, and are thus declined: 

Ego, I. First Person. M, or F. 
Singular. Plural. 



JV. ego, 


I, 


JV. nos, We. 


G. mei, 


of me, 


G. nostrum, or nostri,* of us. 


D. mihi, 


to me, 


D. nobis, to us. 


Ac. me, 


me, 


Ac. nos, us. 


V. 


______ 


V. 



Ab. me, with fyc. me. Ab. nobis, with, fyc. us. 

Tu, thou, Second Person, M, or F. 
Singular. Plural. 

JV. tu, thou or you, JV. vos, ye, or you, 

G. tui, of thee, or of you, G. vestrum, or vestri, of you, 

D. tibi, to thee, or to you, B. vobis, to you, 

Ac.te, thee, or you, Ac. vos, you, 

V. tu, O thou, or O you, V. vos, O ye, or you, 

Ab. te, with, fyc. thee, or you. Ab. vobis, with fyc. you. 

Sui, of himself, of herself, of itself Third Person. 
M. F. N. Reflexive. 
Singular. Plural. 

JV". JV. — 

G. sui, of himself, fyc. G. sui, of themselves, 

D. sibi, to himself, tyc. D. sibi, to themselves, 

Ac. se, himself, fyc. Ac. se, themselves. 

Ab. se, with fyc. himself fyc. Ab. se, with, fyc. themselves. 
• Nostrum, vestrum, G. subjective; nostri, vestri, objective, §106, Obs. 1 



§ 28 OF PRONOUNS. 65 

Obs. 1. In all speech three things are implied, the person 
speaking, the person spoken to, and the person or thing spo- 
ken of. These are called in Grammar the first, second and 
third persons ; and the pronouns representing them are call- 
ed Personal Pronouns. 

Obs. 2. The pronoun of the first person is Ego, I ; of the 
second 7"?/, thou or you ; of the third Sui, of himself, of 
herself, of itself. Also the adjective pronouns, ipse, ille, 
iste, is, and hie, without a substantive, in the gender of the 
nouns represented by them, and with the general meaning of 
he, she, it, may be called Substantive or Personal Pronouns. 
Note. — " Thou'' and " thee" are used as the rendering of tu and its 
cases in the singular, only in solemn addresses, or to mark special 
emphasis or contempt. In ordinary discourse it is translated by 
" you." See Eng. Gram § 15. 4. 

Obs. 3. The third personal pronouns, though all translated 
by one term in English,* differ from each other in meaning 
and use, as follows : 

1st. Sui is used only in the oblique cases and in a reflexive sense, 
referring to the main subject of the sentence. f and consequently in- 
dicating no change of subject; as, Cato se occidit, " Cato killed him- 
self;" Cato dixit se esse Ccesare feliciorem. u Cato said that he 
(Cato) was more happy than Caesar. " — But when the pronoun re- 
fers to another word, and there is consequently a transition from the 
principle to a subordinate subject, some of the other pronouns ille, 
iste, is, must be used, thus, in the above sentence j " Cato said that he 
was a happier man than Caesar ;" if the word " he" did not refer 
to Cato, but to some other person, ilium or eum, and not se would be 
used ; thus, Cato dixit illum, &cc. 

Exc. Sui and its corresponding possessive pronoun suus, are some- 

* The want of different pronouns of the third person in English, 
is frequently the cause of ambiguity, which never can occur in Latin 
or Greek. Thus if we say, " Lystas promised his father never to 
abandon his friends ;" it is impossible to tell from this sentence whose 
friends are meant, — whether those of Lysiasor of his father. If the 
former, " his" in Latin would be suos; if the latter, " ejus," and if 
the latter in a special manner, " ipsius." 

f The main subject is generally the nominative to the leading verb, 
as in the above examples. Sometimes, however, the construction 
requires it to be in a different case ; as, Ab Antonio admonitus sum 
ut mane sibi adessem, here the leading subject is Antonio in the Abla- 
tive, and to this, of course, sibi refers ; so in the following : "Est 
libido homini suo animo obsequi,'" the principal subject is " hominu" 

*6 



66 OP PRONOUNS. § 28 

times used when the reference is not to be primary, but to a subordi- 
nate subject } but this is never done by good writers when it would 
cause ambiguity. The most common cases of this usage are : — 
1st. When the primary subject is in the first or second person to 
which of course sui, being the third, cannot refer ; as, ilium occldi 
suo gladio, I slew him with his own sword. 2d. After quisqae or 
unusquisque ; as, suum cuique tribuunt, " they give every man his 
own." 3d. When the word to which suus refers stands immediate- 
ly or almost immediately before it ; as, hunc cives sui ex urbe ejecerunt; 
u his fellow citizens banished him from the city," 4th. When the 
noun with which suus agrees is coupled with another by cum; as, eum 
cum suis rebus dimiserunt ) " they dismissed him with his effects." 

2d. Ipse is applicable to any of the three persons, and,— -in the no- 
minative case, is used when either the primary or the subordinate 
subject is again introduced with emphasis, in a subsequent or subor- 
dinate clause, or in the next sentence ; as, Lycurgus nihil ulla lege 
in alios sanxit, cujus non ipse primus in se documenta daret : " Ly- 
curgus bound nothing by any law upon others, of which he did not 
first give an instance in himself j" here ipse refers to Lycurgus, the 
primary subject. In the following sentence, ipsi refers to the subor- 
nate, and ipse to the principal subject ; Ccesar ad prcefectos — mittit 
qui nuncidrent ne hostes prcelio lacessZrent ; et si ipsi lacesstrentur . 
sustinerent quoad ipse accessisset. Caesar, IV. 11. 

In the oblique cases, ipse hardly ever refers to the main subject, 
(this being the proper office of sui,) but to the subordinate when that 
is to be expressed with emphasis, and distinguished from the primary 
or any other subject previously expressed ; as, Senatus dixit non sua 
negligigentid, sed ipsius (Pornpeji.) subito adventu factum. u The 
senate said that it happened not through any negligence on their part 
but owing to his (Pompey's) sudden arrival." Instances however oc- 
cur in which the oblique cases refer to the principal subject, but 
these are rare, and such as to create no ambiguity. 

3d. Ille, iste, is, and hie, in all genders are used as pronouns, of the 
third person, and are all rendered he, she, or it, as the word which 
they represent may require. In the nominative they are applicable 
equally to the main'or to the subordinate subject But in the ob- 
lique cases, with few exceptions, they refer to the subordinate only. 
Ille means he, referring to a person at a distance from the speaker ; 
hie means he, referring to a person near the speaker ; iste means he. 
denoting a person near to, or mentioned by, the person spoken to ; is 
means he, in a more general way, and very often designates a person 



§ 29 5 30 OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 67 

or thing not previously mentioned, but which is described in a suc- 
ceeding clause with the relative. These distinctions may be illus- 
trated thus : 

Ille venit, he (the person formerly spoken of,) has come. 

Iste venit, he (the person of whom you spoke,) has come. 

Is venit, he has come. 

Hie venit, he (the person present or just spoken of,) has come. 

In the use of these pronouns, however, these distinctions are not 
always strictly observed : Ille and is, especially are often used indis- 
criminately, and in the same sentence apparently for the sake of 
Euphony or variety of expression. 

Iste is often used as an expression of worthlessness or contempt. 

Obs. 4, The personal pronouns are rendered emphatic by an- 
nexing the definite ipse, and the syllable -met or -te separate- 
ly or variously combined; as, ego ipse, egomet, tute,nosmet- 
ipsi, &c. Se the accusative and ablative of sui is often dou- 
bled, as sese. When the preposition cum is used with the 
ablative of the personal pronouns, it is commonly annexed, 
as, mecum, tecum., secum, nobiscum, &c. 

Obs. 5. In the accusative plural with inter, or after an active verb 
with invicem, se is used as a reciprocal pronoun; as, Fr aires inter se 
similes, u Brothers like each other." Brutus et Aruns se invicem oc~ 
ciderunt, u Brutus and Aruns slew each other." 



§ 29. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

Adjective Pronouns are declined with three 
genders, to agree with their substantives in these 
accidents. 

Adjective Pronouns may be divided into Pos- 
sessive, Demonstrative, Definite, Relative, Interroga- 
tive, Indefinite, and I? atrial. 



$ 30. I. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

The Possessive Pronouns are derived from the 
Substantive as follows : 



Meus, 


-a, 


•urn, 


Tuus, 


-a, 


-um, 


Suus, 


-a, 


•urn, 


Noster, 


-ra, 


-rum. 


Vester, 


-ra, 


-rum. 



68 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. § 31 

my, my own, from ego. 

thy, thy own, lt tu. 

his, her, its, his own, fyc. " sui. 
our, our own, " nos. 

your, your own, il vos 

Obs. 1. In signification, Possessive Pronouns correspond 
to the genitive of their primitives, for which they may be 
considered as a substitute ; thus, f rater mei, " the brother of 
me," and meus f rater, il my brother," mean the same thing, 
and hence they may often be rendered as the genitive; as, 
suo populique Romani be?ieficio, " by the kindness of himself, 
and of the Roman people." Caes. 

Obs. 2. In form they are regular adjectives of the first and 
second declension. Meus, tuus and suus are declined like 
bonus, § 20. 1 ; except that meus has mi, seldom meus, in the 
vocative singular masculine. Noster and Vester are declin- 
ed like ater, § 20. 3. 

Obs. 3. Suus like its primitive sui, (§ 28. Exc.) is used in a reflex- 
ive sense, referring to the subject of the main verb in the sentence, 
and must be rendered into English in the gender and number of that 
subject without regard to the noun with which it stands ; thus, suam 
rem familiar em per diderunt, " they squandered their property ;" here 
suam, though singular, to agree with rem, must be rendered" their," 
because rt refers to the plural subject of perdiderunt. Ilia suos fra- 
tres dilexit, u she loved her brothers." 

When the reference is not to the subject of the main verb but to 
some other third person the possessive is expressed in Latin, not by 
suus, but by the genitives of ille, ipse, iste, is and hie; thus, -ejus rem 
familiarem rapuerunt, " they plundered his property." Suos amrcos 
amat, means u he loves his own friends f f ejus amlcos amat, is " he 
loves his friends/ 7 meaning (not his own, but). the friends of some 
other person to whom ejus refers. 



§ 31. II. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Demonstrative Pronouns are such as point 
out with precision a person or thing already known. 

They are, hie, this ) ille, iste, is, that. They are declined 
as follows : 



§31 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 



69 



Hie, hjgCj hocj this; Plural, these. 



M. 

JV. hie, 
G. hujus, 
D. huic, 

Ac.h\ nc, 
V. He, 
Ab. hoc, 



Singular. 
F. 
haec, 
hujus, 
huic, 
hanc, 
haee, 
hac, 



Plural* 

N. M. F. N. 

hoc, JV. hi, hae, haec, 

hujus, G. horum, harum, horum, 



huic, D. his, his, 

hoc, Ac. hos, has, 

hoc, V. hi, hae, 

hoc. Ab. his, his, 



his, 
haec, 
haee, 
his. 



Ille, illa, illud, that; Plural, those. 
Singular. Plural. 

M. F. N. M. F. N. 

N. ille, ilia, illud, JV. illi, illae, illa, 

G. illius, illius, illius,* G. illorum, illarum, illorum, 
B. illi, illi, illi, D. illis, illis, illis, 

Ac. ilium, illam, illud, Ac. illos, illas, illa, 
V. ille, illa, illud, V. illi, illae, illa, 

Ab. illo, illa, illo. Ab. illis, illis, illis. 

Iste, that; is declined likezlle. 
Is, ea, id, that; Plural, those. 



M. 

JV. is, 
G ejus, 
D. ei, 
Ac. eum, 
V. — 
Ab. eo, 



Singular. 
F. 
ea, 
ejus, 
ei, 
earn, 

ea, 



N. 
id, 
e us, 
ei, 
id, 

eo. 



Plural. 
F. 



N. 



ea, 
eorum, 



M. 

JV. ii, eae, 

G. eorum, earum, 

D. iis,or eis, iis, or eis, iisor eis 

Ac. eos, eas, ea, 

F. — — — 

Ab. iis,or eis, iis,o?* eis, iis,or eis 



From is and the syllable -dem is formed idem, eadem, idem, 
11 the sameP which is thus declined : 



M. 

JV. idem, 
G. ejusdem, 
D. eidem, 
Ac. eundem, 
V. idem, 
Ab. eodem, 



Singular. 
F. 
eadem, 
ejusdem, 
e.dem, 
eandeiPj 
eadem, 
eadem, 



N. 

idem, 
ejusdem, 
eidem, 
idem, 
idem, 
eodem. 



• See 5 20. Note. 2 



70 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. § 31 

Plural. 
M. F. N. 

N. iidem, eaedem, eadem, 

G. eorundem, earundem, eorundem, 

D. e'isdem, or iisdem, &c. 

Ac. eosdem, easdem, eadem, 

V. iidem, eaedem, eadem, 

Ab. eisdem, or iisdem, &c. 
Obs. 1. When two persons or things are spoken of, ille 
refers to the former, hie to the latter. When three are spo- 
ken of, ille refers to the first, hie, to the last, and iste to the 
intermediate. 

Obs. 2. Hie means "this," referring to something near 
the speaker or just spoken of. Ille " that," refers to some- 
thing at a distance or before spoken of. Iste " that," refers 
to something near, or belonging to, or some way connected 
with the person spoken to. Is, " that," is less precise in 
its reference than the other demonstratives, being not confin- 
ed to something known or already spoken of, but is often 
used to point out that which is to be farther described ; as, 
ed legione quam seeum habebat, " with that legion which he 
had with him." 

When followed by ut or qui, is has the sense of talis 
<l such ;" &s,Neque enim tu is es, qui (or ut) quid sis nescias, 
"neither art thou such a one as to be ignorant of what you 
are." With que it gives emphasis to the clause to w r hich it 
refers ; thus, idque " and that too," " especially," equivalent 
to the Greek '• xai rocura," 

Obs. 3. Hie, and some cases of the other demonstratives, 
are rendered emphatic by adding ce ; as, hicce, hujusce, 
huncce, &c. When ue interrogative is also added, ce is chang- 
ed into ci; as hiccine, hoscine, &c. 

Obs. 4. From ille and iste with hie, are formed the com- 
pounds illic and isthic or istic, used in some of the cases for 
ille and iste, but with greater emphasis. 
Istic is thus declined, 
Singular. Plural. 

M. F. N. M. F. N. 

N. istic, istaec, istoc, N. ) . . 

Ac. istunc, istanc, istunc, Ac. \ 
Ab. istoc, istac, istoc. 

Illic is declined in the same manner. 



§33 



RELATIVE PRONOUN. 



71 



§ 32. III. THE DEFINITE PRONOUN. 

The Definite Pronoun ipse is used to give a clo- 
ser or more definite signification of a person or 
thing; as, Ad ipsam portam accessit, " he came up 
to the gate itself;" or " the very gate." It is thus 
declined : 



Singular. 



Plural. 





M. 


F. 


N. 




M. 


F. 


N. 


N. 


ipse, 


ipsa, 


ipsum, 


N. 


ipsi, 


ipsae, 


ipsa, 


G. 


ipsius, 


ipsms, 


ipsms, 


G. 


ipsorum,ipsarum, ipsorum, 


V. 


ipsi, 


ipsi, 


ipsi, 


V. 


ipsis, 


ipsis, 


ipsis, 


Ac. 


ipsum, 


ipsam, 


ipsum, 


Ac, 


, ipsos, 


ipsas, 


ipsa, 


V. 








V. 








Ab 


. ipso, 


ipsa, 


ipso. 


Ab, 


, ipsis, 


ipsis, 


ipsis. 



§ 33. IV. RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

The Relative Pronoun is one that relates to 
a noun or pronoun going before it, called the an- 
tecedent. It is thus declined. 



Singular. 
M. F. 

N. qui, quae, 

G. cujus, cujus, 

D. cui, cui, 

Ac. quern, quam, 

V. 



Qui, q.vje : quod, who, which, that. 

Plural. 
F. 



N. M. F. N. 

quod, JV. qui, quae, quse, 
cujus, G. quorum, quarum, quorum, 
cui, D. queis,or quibus, &c. 
quod, Ac. quos, quas, quse, 
V. 



Ab. quo, qua, quo. Ab. queis, or quibus, &c. 

For the construction of the relative, see § 99. 

Obs. 1. Qui is sometimes used for the ablative singular in 



72 INTERROGATIVE FHONOUN. § 34 

all genders, seldom for the plural. To all forms of the Ab- 
lative, cum is frequently annexed; as, qu6cum 7 quibuscum, &c» 

Obs. 2. Quicunque, or quicumquc and quivis, also used as 
relatives (§ 99, Obs. 7.) are declined like qui. 



§ 34. V. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 

The Interrogative Pronoun is used in asking 
a question; as, quis fecit? " who did it ?" 

The interrogatives are, 

£ u ! s? A who? what? Acquis? J. 

Quisnam ? $ Ecquisnam? > is any one f 

/z . ' * > which ? what ? ^ • ? * i \ 

Cujas ? o/ u7ia£ country ? 

The simple interrogative gzm, is thus declined. 

Quis, quje, quod, or quib? Who? which? what? 
Singular. Plural. 

M. F. N. M. F. N. 

JV. quis, quse, quod, or quid,iV. qui, quae, quae, 

G. cujus,cujus, cujus, G. quorum, quarum, quorum, 

D. cui, cui, cui, D. queis, or quibus, &c. 

Ac. quem,quam, quod, or quid, ^Lc. quos, quas, quae, 

v. v. :■ — - — - — 

Ab. quo, qua, quo. Ab. queis, or quibus, &c. 

For the inflection of the compound interrogatives, see § 37. 2. 

Obs. 1. All interrogative pronouns used in a dependent 
clause and without a question are indefinites, § 35. as, 
nescio quis sit, l< I know not who he is," In this sense, qui 
is often used for quis; as, qui sit aperit, " he shews who 
he is." So also such adjectives as quantus, qudlis, &c. 

Obs. 2. Quod in the neuter gender, as an adjective, com- 
monly agrees with its noun ; as, quod beneficium est in hoc ? 
" what kindness is in this ?" Quid, as a substantive, common- 
ly governs its noun in the genitive $ as, quid beneficii est in 
hoc? 



§ 35, 36, 37. of FROK0V89, 73 

.4 

Obs. 3. Cujus, -a, -?i?n, "whose," used instead of the ge- 
nitive of quis is defective. The parts in use are as follows : 
Singular* Plural. 

M. F. N. M. F. 

N. cujus, cuja, cujura, N. cuji, cujae, 

Ac. cujum, cujam, Ac. cujas. 

Ab. cuja, 

Obs. 4. Cujas, " of what country," is declined like an 
adjective of one termination, § 21. I. Nom. cujas, Gen. cw- 
jatis, &c. 



§ 35. VI. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

The Indefinite Pronouns are such as denote 
persons or things indefinitely, without indicating 
a particular individual. Besides the interrogates 
used indefinitely, they are, 

Aliquis, some one. Quispiam, some one. 

Siquis, if any one. Unusquisque, each one. 

Nequis, lest any, no one. Quidara, a certain one. 

Quisque, each one, every <me. Quilibet, | , 

Quisquam, any one. Quivis, 5 * t 

For the inflection of these y see § 37, 1. 2. 3. 



§ 36. VII. PATRIAL PRONOUNS, 

The Patrial Pronouns are those which have reference to 
one's country. They are nostras, " of our country; " ves- 
tras, " of your country." They are both adjectives of one 
termination. Nom. nostras, Gen. nostratis, &e. § 21. 1. 



§ 37. COMPOUND PRONOUNS. 

The compound pronouns all belong to some of the classes 
above enumerated. 

7 



74 



OF PRONOUNS. 



§37 



In the compounds of qui and quis, qui is always the first 
part ; quis is sometimes the first part and sometimes the last 
part of the word compounded. 

1. The compounds of qui are quicunque, " whosoever ;" 
quidam, "some;" quilibet, quivis, "anyone;" "whom you 
please." They are declined by adding the termination to 
the different cases and numbers of qui; thus, 





Quicunque, xohosoever, whatsoever. 




M. 


Singular. 
F. 


N. 


N. 
G. 


quicunque, 
cujuscunque, 


qusecunque, 
cujuscunque, 

Plural. 


quodcunque, 
cujuscunque, &c. 


N. 
G. 


quicunque, qusecunque, 
quorumcunque, quarumcunque, 


qusecunque, 
quorumcunque, &c, 






So, 






Quidam, 
Quilibet, 
Quivis, 


qusedam, quoddam, or quiddam. 
quselibet, quodlibet, or quidlibet. 
quaevis, quodvis, or quidvis. 



Note. — Before -dam, m is changed into n ; as, quendam, quorun- 
dam, &c. 

2. The compounds of quis, when quis is put first, are quis- 
nam, "who?" quispiam, quisquam, "any one," quisqtte, 
" every one ;" and quisquis, " whosoever." 



Quisnam, who, which, what ? 

Singular. 
M. F. N. 

N. quisnam, qusenam, quodnam, or quidnam, 

G. cujusnam, cujusnam, cujusnam, 

D. cuinam, cuinam, cuinam, 

Ac. quemnam, quamnam, quodnam, or quidnam, 

V. 



Ab. quonam, 



quanam, 



quonam. 



§37 



OF PRONOUNS. 



75 



Plural. 
quaenam, 
quarumnam, 
quibusnam, 
quasnam, 



quaenam, 
quorumnam, 
quibusnam, 
quaenam, 



N. quinam, 
G. quorumnam, 
D. quibusnam, 
Ac. quosnam, 

V. 

Ab. quibusnam, quibusnam, quibusnam. 

So decline, 
qusepiam, quodpiam, or quidpiam. 



Quispiam, 
Quisquam, 
Quisque, 
Quisquis, 



quaequam, 
quaeque, 



quodquam, orquidquam. 
quodque, or quidque. 
quidquid, or quicquid. 



Obs. 1. Quisquam has quenquam in the accusative, with- 
out the feminine. The plural is scarcely used ; quicque is 
also used for quidque* Quisquis has no feminine termination 
except in the Ablative, and the Neuter only in the Nomina- 
tive and Accusative. The following are the parts in use, 

Singular. 



M. 

N. quisquis, 
Ac. quemquem, 
Ab. quoquo, 



N. 



quidquid, or quicquid, 
quidquid, or quicquid , 
quoquo. 

quiqui, and Dat. 



quibusqui- 



quaqua, 

The Plural has Norn. Masc. 
bus. Quisquis is sometimes used for the feminine. 

3. The compounds of quis when quis is put last, have qua 
in the Nom. Sing. Fern, and in the Nom. and Accusative Plu- 
ral Neuter. These are, 



Numquis, whether any? 
Siquis, if any. 



Aliquis, some. 
Ecquis, whether any ? 
Nequis, lest any. 

The last three are often written separately ; as, ne quis, 
num quis, si quis. These pronouns are thus declined : 

Singular. 
M. F. N. 

JV. aliquis, aliqua, aliquod, or aliquid, 

G. alicujus, alicujus, alicujus, 

D. alicui, alicui, alicui, 

Ac. aliquem, aliquam, aliquod, or aliquid, 

V. aliquis, aliqua, aliquod, or aliquid, 

Ab. aliquo. aliqua, aliquo. 



76 OF THE VERS- § 38 





OP THE VERB- 






Plural. 




M. 


F. 


. N ' 


N. aliqui? 


aliquee, 


aliqua. 


(?. aliquorum, 


aliquaruffi, 


aliquorum, 


D. aliquibus, 


aliquibus, 


aliquibus. 


Ac. aliquos, 


aliquas, 


aliqua, 


V. aliqui, 


aliquae, 


aliqua, 


Ab. aliquibus, 


aliquibus, 


aliquibus. 



Note. Ecquis and siquis have sometimes quee in the nominative 
singular feminine. 

Obs. 2. Some of these are twice compounded ; as, ecquis* 
nam, ecqucenam, ecquodnam, or ecquidnam, "who?" unus» 
quisque, unaquceque, unumquodque, or unumquidque, " every 
one ;" Gen. uniuscujusque, &c. The former is scarcely de- 
clined beyond the Nom. Sing, and the latter wants the Plural. 

Obs. 3. All these compounds want the vocative, except 
quisque, aliquis, quilibet and quicunque. They have seldom 
if ever queis, but quibus in the Dative and Ablative Plural. 



§ 38. OF THE VERB. 

A Verb is a word that expresses an action or 
state. 

Obs. 1. The use of the verb in simple propositions is to 
affirm. That of which it affirms is called its subject, and, if 
a noun or pronoun, is usually in the nominative case. But 
when the verb is in the infinitive, its subject is put in the 
accusative. 

1. Verbs are of two kinds, Transitive and In- 
transitive ; (Also called Active and Neuter.*) 

* These two classes comprehend all the verbs in any language. Ac- 
cording lo this division, Transitive verbs include those only which denote 
transitive action J i. e., action passing aver from, or done by, one person 
or thing to another ; and Intransitive verbs, those which have nothing 
transitive in their meaning, but which represent their subject in a certain 
state or condition, and nothing more. For this purpose not only are the 
terms Transitive and Intransitive more expressive and appropriate than 
Active and Neuter, but their use relieves the term " Active" to be em- 
ployed solely as the name of the form called the Active Voice ; and the term 
• Neuter," to be appropriated to the gender of nouns. E, G. App. III. 5. 



§ 38 OF THE VERB. 77 

2. A Transitive (or Active) verb expresses an 
act done by one person or thing to another. It 
has two forms, called the Active and Passive voice. 
§41. 

3. An Intransitive (or Neuter) verb expresses 
being, or a state of being, or action confined to the 
actor. It is commonly without the passive form. 

Obs. 2. The verbs that express being simply, in Latin, are 
sum,Jio, exist o, signifying in general " to be," or " exist." 
The state of being expressed by intransitive verbs may be 
a state of rest ; as dorrnio, I sleep ; or of motion, as cado, I 
fall ; or of action, as airro, I run. 

Obs. 3. The action expressed by an intransitive verb does 
not, like the action expressed by a transitive verb, pass over 
from the agent or actor to an object. It has no immediate rela- 
tion to anything beyond its subject, which it represents in a 
certain state or condition, and nothing more ; and hence they 
may always be distinguished thus : A transitive verb always 
requires an object to complete the sense ; as, amo te, I love 
thee ; the intransitive verb does not, but the sense is com- 
plete without such an object ; as, sedeo, I sit ; curro, I run. 

Obs. 4. Many verbs considered intransitive in Latin are 
translated by verbs considered transitive in English ; as 
placeo, I please ; obedio, I obey ; credo, I believe, <fcc. 

Obs* 5. Many verbs are used sometimes in a transitive, 
and sometimes in an intransitive sense. Such are fugio, in- 
clino, ti/neo, &c ; as, fuge dextrum littus (tr.) " avoid the right 
hand shore ;" tempusfugil,(intr.) u time flies ;" iimeo Banaos, 
(tr.) " I dread the Greeks," timeo (intr.) " I am afraid." 

Obs. 6. Verbs usually intransitive assume a transitive 
sense when a word of similar signification with the verb 
itself is introduced as its object; as, vivere vitam, "to 
live a life ;" jurare jusjurandum, " to swear an oath." 

Obs. 7. When we wish to direct the attention, not so much to 
any particular act of the subject of discourse, as to the employ- 
ment or state of that subject, the object of the act — not being 
important — is omitted, and the transitive verb assumes the 
character of an intransitive; thus, in the sentence, puer legit, 

7* 



78 OF THE VERB. ^ 39 

" the bov reads ;" nothing more is indicated than the pre- 
sent state or employment of puer, " the boy," and the verb has 
obviously an intransitive sense : Still, an object is necessarily 
implied, as he who reads must read something. But when 
we say puer legit Homerum, " the boy reads Homer," the 
attention is directed to a particular act, terminating on a 
certain object, " Homerum" and the verb has its proper 
transitive sense. 



§ 39. DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS. 

Though the Division of Verbs into Transitive and Intran- 
sitive, comprehends all the verbs in any language, yet from 
something peculiar in their form or signification, they are 
characterized by different names, expressive of this peculi- 
arity. The most common of these are the following, viz: 
Regular, Irregular, Deponent, Common, Defective, Imperson- 
al, Redundant, Frequentative, Inceptive, and Desiderative. 

1. Regular Verbs are those in which the se- 
condary parts are formed from the primary, ac- 
cording to certain rules. § 51. 

Note. — Under these are included Transitive, Intransitive, Deponent, 
and Common verbs belonging to the four conjugations. 

2. Irregular Verbs are those in which some 
of the secondary parts are not formed from the pri- 
mary, according to rule. § 83. 

3. Deponent Verbs under a passive form have 
an active signification. § 72. 

4. Common Verbs under a passive form have 
an active or passive signification. § 72. 

5. Defective Verbs want some of their parts. 
§ 84. 

6. Impersonal Verbs are used only in the third 
person singular. § 85. 



$4'0. THE VERB. INFLECTION- 79 

7. Redundant Verbs have more than one form 
of the same part. § 87. 

8. •Frequentative Verbs express repeated ac- 
tion. § 88. 1. 

9. Inceptive Verbs mark the beginning or con- 
tinued increase of an action. § 88. 2. 

10. Desiderative Verbs denote desire or in- 
tention of doing. § 88. 3. The three last are al- 
ways derivatives. § 88. 



§ 40. INFLECTION OF VERBS. 

To the inflection of Verbs belong Voices, 
Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. 

1. The Voices in Latin are two, Active and 
Passive. 

2. The Moods are four, the Indicative, Subjunc- 
tive, Imperative and Infinitive. 

3. The Tenses are six, the Present, Imperfect, 
Perfect, Pluperfect, Future and Future-Perfect. 

4. The Numbers are two, Singular and Plural. 

5. The Persons are three, First, Second and 
Third. 

6. Besides these, to the Verb belong Partici- 
ples, Gerunds and Supines. 

7. The Conjugation of a verb is the arrange- 
ment of its different moods, tenses, &c. according 
to a certain order. Of these, in Latin, there are 
four, called the First, Second, Third and Fourth 
Conjugations. § 51. 



80 THE VERB. VOICE. , § 41 

Obs. A few verbs in Latin are of more than one conjuga- 
tion, and a few have some of their parts belonging to one 
conjugation, and others to another. 



§ 41. OF VOICE. 

Voice is a particular form of the verb which 
shews the relation of the subject or thing spoken 
of, to the action expressed by the verb. 

The transitive verb,in Latin,has two voices, call- 
ed the Active and Passive. 

1. The Active Voice represents the subject of 
the verb as acting on some object; as, amo te, "I 
love thee." 

2. The Passive Voice represents the subject of 
the verb as acted upon; as, amatur, "he is lov- 
ed." 

Obs. 1. In both voices the act expressed by the verb is the 
same, but differently related to the subject of the verb. In 
the active voice the subject is the actor ; in the passive, it is 
1 cted upon, as in the above examples. Hence the same idea 
1 lay be expressed with equal propriety in either voice, by 
s mply changing the object of the active voice into the subject 
or' the passive, thus, by the active voice, Casar xlcit Gal- 
U an, " Caesar conquered Gaul;" by the passive, Gallia victa 
es: a Ccesare, " Gaul was conquered by Caesar. 

This property of the transitive verb enables the speaker or 
wi iter not only to vary his form of expression at pleasure, 
but also by means of the passive form, to direct the attention 
to the act and the object acted upon when the actor either is 
unknown, or, it may be, unimportant or improper to be men- 
tioned : Thus, " America was discovered and inhabited be- 
fore the days of Columbus." So also the attention may be 
directed by means of the active voice to the act and the actor, 
without regard to the object. See § 38. Obs. 7. 

Obs. 2. Intransitive Verbs from their nature do not admit 



§ 42 THE VERB. MOODS. 81 

a distinction of voice. They are generally in the form of the 
active voice, but are frequently used in the third person 
singular, passive form, as impersonal verbs. § 85. 3. Depo- 
nent intransitives, however, have the form of the passive. 

Obs. 3. The passive voice in Latin is often used in a sense 
similar to the middle voice in Greek, to express actively 
what its subject does to, or fo?' itself; as, donee pauci, qui 
prcelio super f iter ant, £>tf2tt<#fZwsabderentur, "till the few who 
had survived the battle concealed themselves in the marshes." 
Tac. The following are examples of the same kind. Co- 
lumba — -fertur in arva volans. Virg. — Nunc spicula ver- 
tunt infensi; facta pari ter nunc pace feruntur. Id — E scopu- 
lo multd viz arte revolsus — ratem Sergestus agebat. Id — 
Quis ignorat, ii, qui mathematici vocanlur, in quanta obscu- 
ntate rerum — versentur. Cic. — Cum igitur vehementius 
inveheretur in *causam principum. consul Philippics. Id. — 
Cum omnes in omni genere scelerum volutentub. Id. 

Circumdat nequidquam humeris, et inutile ferrum, 
Cingitur, ac densos fertur moriturus in hostes. Virg. 
In ail such constructions the words " a se" may be under- 
stood after the verb. 



§ 42. OF MOODS. 

Mood is the mode or manner of expressing the 
signification of the verb. 

The moods in Latin are four ; namely, the In- 
dicative, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive. 

I. The Indicative Mood expresses what is act- 
ual and certain, in an absolute and independent 
manner; as, amo, "I love." 

Obs. 1. That which is actual and certain is sometimes ex- 
pressed by the subjunctive mood, but in that case the clause 
expressing it is dependent ; as, nescit quis sim, " he knows 
not who I am." 

II. The Subjunctive Mood is never used to 



82 THE VERB. — MOODS. § 42 

express an absolute and independent assertion, 
but it is used — 

1st. To express a thing in a subordinate clause, 
dependent upon a preceding verb expressed or un- 
derstood, and connected with it by an adverb, con- 
junction, or indefinite term ; as, 

Nescit quis sim, " he knows not who I am." Si redeat videbimus, 
11 if he return we shall see him," &c. Accidit utterga verterent, " it 
happened that they turned their backs." 

Obs. 2. Thus used the Subjunctive is rendered by the Eng- 
lish indicative or subjunctive ; as, Indie, lego, " I read," 
Sub j. quod legarn, " because I read j" Indie, ornneseum ama- 
verunt, all men loved him ; Subj. adeo benevolus eral ut o ni- 
nes eum amarent, " he was so kind that all men loved him;" 
See Eng. Gr. § 22. Obs 2. Thus used it comes under § 44. 

2d. It is used potentially to express a thing not 
as actual and certain, but contingent and hypotheti- 
cal, that is, not as what does, or did, or certain- 
ly will take place, but as what may, can, might, or 
should take place in certain circumstances. 

In other words, it does not assert the positive action or 
state of its subject, but only the liberty, power, will, or duty 
of the subject with respect to the action expressed by the 
verb ; as, legerem si necesse esset, " I would read if it were 
necessary." 

Obs. 3. In the first of these senses, this mood is strictly 
subjunctive and corresponds to the subjunctive mood in Eng- 
lish, though commonly translated by the indicative. In the 
second sense it is evidently potential, and is translated by the 
English potential mood, implying, in the present, the sense of 
way, can, shall, will ; and in the preterite tenses, the sense of 
might, could, should, would; as, amem, U I mayor can 
love," quisquam Junonis numen addret, " will any one 
adore" &c. Caesar nascetur, famam qui terminet astris, 
4t Casar — who shall or will bound" &c. 

Obs. 4. This mood is often used in an optative and also in 
an imperative sense ; as, utinam saperes, " O that thou wert 
wise*," quod bene vertat, " may it turn out well 5" sic eat, 
" thus let her go;" facias, " do it." See Obs. 5. 



§ 42 THE VERB. — MOODS. 83 

Obs. 5. When this mood is used in a potential r optative or 
imperative sense, still it ought to be regarded as strictly sub- 
junctive, having the primary or leading clause evidently un- 
derstood, on which the meaning of the mood in each case de- 
pends. Thus, "I may write," licet mihi ut, or est ut scri- 
bam, " I shall, or will write ;" futurum est, or erit ut scri- 
bam, "I should write ;" oportet, cequum est ut, or est cur scribe- 
rem, " I should have written ;" oportebat, &c. ut scripsissem, 
11 O that they were wise ;" peropto utinam saperent ; u may 
it turn out well ;" precor quod bene vertat, " do it ;" fac ut 
facias, " let me do it ;" sine ut faciam, &c. 

Hence it follows that the particular English auxiliary by 
which this mood should be translated, depends, not upon the 
form of the Latin verb, seeing scriberem for example means 
equally, " I might, could, would, or should write," but upon 
the ellipsis to be supplied. What this is, must always be 
gathered from the connexion and sense of the passage. 

Obs. 6. From these observations it will be manifest that 
the Latin subjunctive is in much more extensive use than 
either the subjunctive and potential mood in English, or the 
subjunctive and optative mood in Greek. Indeed, the pro- 
per use and management of this mood, constitutes one of the 
greatest difficulties in this language. For the construction 
of this mood, see § 139. 

Obs. 7. When the ideas of liberty, power, will, obligation, 
duty, &c. involved in the auxiliaries may, can, will, shall, 
might, could, would, should, &c. are to be expressed in an 
absolute, independent, and emphatic manner, the subjunctive 
mood is not used, but separate verbs expressing these ideas 
in the indicative mood. These are such as licet, volo, nolo, 
possum, debeo, &c. thus: 

" We will go," Ire volumus. 

"They will not go," Ire nolunt. 

"I may come," Mihi venire licet. 

"I can read," Legere possum. 

C Legere debes. 
" Thou shouldst read," < Tibi legendum est. 

( Te legere oportet. 
"It might have been done," "i 
(absolutely and sometimes > Fieri potuit. 

contingently. ) 7 



84 THE VERB. TENSES. § 43 

Obs, 8. The future indicative is frequently used in depend- 
ent and hypothetical clauses, and consequently in a subjunc- 
tive sense; as, si jubebis faciam, " if you order me, I will 
do it;" equivalent to si jubeas, &c. 

III. The Imperative Mood commands, exhorts, 
entreats, or permits; as, scribe, " write thou;" 
ito, " let him go." 

Obs. 9. The present subjunctive is very often used instead 
of the imperative, especially in forbidding, after ne, nemo, 
nullus, &c. as, Valeas, " farewell ;" ne noceas ynero, " hurt 
not the boy ;" No, 4 and 5. Besides this, the future and fu- 
ture perfect indicative, and the perfect subjunctive are also 
used imperatively. See § 44. V. 1, and VI. 3. § 45. III. 4, 

IV. The Infinitive Mood expresses the meaning 
of the verb in a general manner, without any dis- 
tinction of person or number; as, scribere, "to 
write;" scripsisse, " to have written ;" scribi, "to 
be written." 



§ 43. OF THE TENSES. 

Tenses are certain forms of the verb which 
serve to point out the distinctions of time. 

Time is naturally divided into the Present, Past and Fu- 
ture, and an action may be represented either as incomplete 
and continuing, or, as completed at the time spoken of. 
This gives rise to six tenses, which are expressed in Latin by 
distinct forms of the verb, thus : 

p „ { Action continuing; as, scribo, "I write, I am writing," Present. 

rRESENi ^ Action completed; as, scripsi, "I have written." Perfect. 

p J Action continuing; as, scribebam, "I was writing." Imperj. 

T ( Action completed; as, scripseram, il I had written." Pluperf. 

p < Action continuing ; as, scribam, " I shall or will write." Futvre. 

tutu e ^ A C Ucm completed; as, scripscro, l( l shall have written." Fvt-pcrf. 

In order better to express the time and the state of the ac- 
tion by one designation, these tenses in the above order might 
be properly denominated the Present, the Present -perfect, 



§ 44 THE VERB. TENSES. 85 

the Past, the Past-perfect; the Future, and the Future-pev 
feet. 



§ 44. TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 

The Tenses of the indicative mood in Latin are 
six; the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the 
Pluperfect, the Future, and the Future-perfect. 

I. The Present tense expresses what is going 
on at the present time; as, scribo, "I write, or 
"I am writing;" domus adificatur, "the house is 
building. 

This tense is rendered with all the variety of the present 
tense in English; as, Iivrite, do write, am ivriting ; interro- 
gatively ; do I write? a w I writing? Like the English pre- 
sent also it is used. 

1. to express what is habitual or always true; as qui cito 
dat, bis dat, "he who gives promptly gives twice." 

2. To express a general custom, if still existing ; as, Apud 
Parthos signum datur tympano. " Among the Parthians the 
signal is given by the drum." 

S. In historical narration it is used with great effect for 
the past tense, to represent the past event as it were present 
before us ; thus, Livy, Dicto paruere, desiliunt ex equis, pro- 
volant in priminn, &C. "They obeyed, they dismount, they 
fly forward to the front," &c. 

4. To denote an action which has continued for some time 
and which still exists ; as, Tot annos hell a gero, " For so many 
years I have waged, and am still waging war." 

5. With certain adverbs of time, it is sometimes used, as 
in English, to denote what is yet future ; as Quam mox nam* 
go Ephesum, '■ as soon as I sail, or shall sail, for Ephesus." 

6. In the passive voice, the present tense represents its 
subject as at present acted upon, or as the object of an action 
present and continuing, and is usually rendered into English 
by the verb to be, and the perfect participle, as amatur, "he 
is loved," and this rendering will often be correct. 



86 THE VERB. TENSES. § 44 

Obs. There are many verbs however, in which this rendering of the 
present would be incorrect, as it does not express the present receiv 
ing of an action, but rather the present and continuing effect of an 
act, which act itself is now past. In all such cases it is more pro- 
perly the rendering of the perfect , than of the present and is often so 
used. Thus domus cedificata est; opus peractum est; epistola scripta 
est, may be properly rendered u the house is built ;" " the work is 
finished ;." " the letter is written ;" because in the English, as well as 
in Latin, the building of the house, the finishing of the work ; and the 
writing of the letter, are represented as acts now past, and which 
are present only in their effects. The proper rendering of such verbs 
in the present passive, is by the verb to be, and the present par- 
ticiple in -ing in the passive sense; thus, domus cedificatur. u The 
house is building;" opus peragitur, u the work is finishing :" epistola 
scribitur, " the letter is writing." When this mode of expression is not 
authorised, and when the other would be improper, it will be necessa- 
ry to express the precise idea of the present by some other form of 
expression ; thus, dux vulneratur strictly means, - the general is now 
receiving a wound," and should be so rendered. We cannot say "the 
general is wounded," because that implies that the act of wounding 
is past, as in the above examples. Neither can we say, " the general 
is wounding," because the participle - wounding," according to Eng- 
lish usage has not a passive sense. The mode of forming a present 
passive by such expressions as, " the house is being built," " the work 
is being done," " the general is being wounded," is a recent and 
clumsy innovation. On examination it will be found as incorrect as 
it is barbarous and inelegant, and should therefore be avoided. See 
English Gram. § 31. 

II. The Imperfect tense represents an action or 
event as passing and still unfinished at a certain 
time past, expressed or implied ; as, Domum adijica- 
bat, " he was (then) building a house." Ibam 
forte via sacra, "I was accidentally (viz. at the 
time spoken of,) going along the via sacra." 

This tense corresponds to the English imperfect definite., 
Eng. Gr. § 24. II. It is, however, often used indefinitely, and 
hence it is rendered by all the variety that belongs to that 
tense in English; as, scribebain, (indefinite) "I wrote, did 
write ;" (definite) " I was writing ;" (interrogatively) " did 
I write ? was I writing?" Besides 



$ 44 THE VERB. — TENSES. 87 

1. It is used to denote what was usual or customary at 
some past time ; as, Scribebam, "I was accustomed to write." 

2. It is used to denote an action which had existed for some 
time and was still existing at a certain past time; as, Tot an- 
nos bella gerebam, " For so many years I had been, and then 
dtill was waging war.* Sometimes it denotes an action 
desired, intended, or attempted, bu. no* accomplished; as, 
Porsena eum terrebat, " Porsena attempted to fHghtpn him. 

3. It is sometimes used hypothetically instead of the im- 
perfect subjunctive; as, Anceps cert amen er at, nisi equites 
supervenissent, "the battle would have been doubtful," &c. 

4. The same observations made in I. 6. and Obs. in reference 
to the present passive, are applicable in all their extent to the 
imperfect; as, amabatur, " he was loved;" domus cedifica- 
batur, " the house was building," not " was built ;" nor " was 
oeing built;" opus peragebatur, "the wcrk was finish, 
ing," &c. 

III. The Perfect tense is used in two different 
senses j First it represents an action as just com- 
pleted at the present time ; or, if in past time, still 
as continued to, and in some way connected with 
the present. Secondly, as completed in some in- 
definite past time.* 

In the first sense, it is definite, and corresponds to the Eng- 
lish perfect; as, scripsi, "I have written;" hujus ad me- 
moriam ?iostram monument a manserunt duo, " two monu- 
ments of him have remained to our day." 

In the second sense it is indefinite, and corresponds to the 
indefinite form of the English Imperfect, (Eng. Gr. § 24. II.) 
as, scripsi, " I wrote," or "did write." In this sense it is com- 
monly used in historical narrative, and corresponds to the 
Greek Aorist, — thus, Ccesar exercitum ftnibns Italice ad?nd- 
vit, Rubicon transiit, Romam occupavit, " Caesar marched 
his army to the confines of Italy, crossed the Rubicon, and 
took possession of Rome." 

1. This tense, used indefinitely, is sometimes coupled with 
the imperfect, the former denoting a transitory, the latter a 
continued action, thus ; Virg. Conticuere omnes t intentique ora 



88 THE VERB. TENSES. § 44 

txnebant. — " All were silent, and with eager attention kept 
their eyes fixed upon him." 

2. It is sometimes used like the present, to express what 
is true at any time ; thus, Virg. Felix qui potuit re?-um, cog' 
noscere causas, " Happy is that man, who is able to investi- 
gate the causes of things." 

3. Sometimes it is used in the sense of the pluperfect ; as 
Quce postquam evolvit — ligavit, " After he had separated 
these things, — he bound them," &c. Ovid. 

4. It is also used poetically for the imperfect and pluper- 
fect of the subjunctive ; as, nee veni, nisi, &c. " Nor v\ . uld 
I have come, unless," &c. 

5. In the passive form this tense is compound, consisting 
of the perfect participle of the verb, and the present or per- 
fect tense of sum as an auxiliary 5 as, amatus sum % or ama- 
tusfui, " I have been loved." 

Note. — In all compound tenses, the participle must be in the same 
gender and number with the nominative to the verb. 

IV. The Pluperfect tense represents an action 
as completed at, or before some past time expressed 
or implied ; and if before it, still continued to and 
in some way connected with it ; as, scripseram. 
" 1 had written/ 5 

This tense corresponds to the pluperfect in English and is 
rendered by it. It bears the same relation to the perfect that 
the imperfect does to the present. 

1. The pluperfect is sometimes used, especially by the 
poets, for the perfect indicative, and also for the pluperfect 
subjunctive ; as, Dixeram a principio, ut de republicd sile- 
retur, — Cic. " I have said from the beginning," &c. Si 
mens non Iceva fuisset, impulerat, &c. Virg. — " he would 
have impelled" The same idiom is found in English, "he 
had impelled ," for "he would have impelled." 

2. In the passive form this tense, like the perfect is com- 
pound, consisting of the perfect participle and the imperfect 
or pluperfect of sum used as an auxiliary ; as, amaius erarn, 
or amatus fueram, " I had been loved. 

Note. — In these compound forms, the participle seems to be consi- 
dered sometimes as little different from an adjective. In such cases, 



§45 THE VERB. TENSES* 89 

sum becomes the verb and is rendered by its own tense j as, opus 
peractumEST, " the work is finished;" finitus jam labor erat, " the la- 
bor vjas now finished." 

V. The Future Tense represents an action or 
event indefinitely as yet to come; as, scribam, 
" I shall or will write." 

1. This tense is sometimes used in the sense of the impe- 
rative ; as, liques rina, " filtrate the wine." Hor. 

2. The participle in -rus, with the verb sum, is frequently 
used instead of the future, especially if purpose or intention 
is signified 5 as, scriplurus sum, " I am going to write." 

VI. The Future-perfect intimates that an ac- 
tion or event will be completed at or before a cer- 
tain time yet future; as, scripsero, "I shall have 
written;" viz, at or before some future time or 
event. In the passive it has two forms ; as scrip- 
tus ero or scriptus fuero, the first denoting the 
completion of a future action indefinitely, the se- 
cond as in the active voice. 

1. This tense, sometimes called the Future subjunctive; 
properly belongs to the indicative mood, both in signification 
and construction. For the Future subjunctive see § 45. 1. 

2. Though the proper rendering of this tense be shall have, 
yet generally the have or the shall, and frequently both, are 
omitted ; as, qui Antonium oppresserit, is helium confecerit, 
" he who shall cut off Antony shall put an end to the war." 

3. This tense is also used imperatively ; as, memineris tu, 
" remember thou ;" ille viderit, " let him see to it." 



§ 45. TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

The tenses of the subjunctive mood are the Present, the 
Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Pluperfect. 

1. There is no distinct form of a future in the subjunctive, 
all the tenses of this mood sometimes incline to a future sig- 
nification. But when a future subjunctive is required the 

8* 



90 THE VERB. — -TENSES. § 45 

future participle in -rus with the verb sum in the subjunc- 
tive present, is used ; as, haud dubito quin facturus sit, " I 
doubt not that he will do it." 

2. The tenses of the subjunctive mood in Latin, like those 
of the potential in English, are much less definite in respect 
of time, than the tenses of the indicative, being modified by 
the time and meaning of the verbs with which they stand 
connected. 

3. All the tenses of the subjunctive mood are often render- 
ed like the corresponding tenses of the indicative, § 42. II. 1st. 

I. The Present subjunctive is generally render- 
ed by may or can, expressing present liberty, or 
ability ; as, scribam, " I may write.' 5 But, 

1. This tense is often used in the sense of the imperative 
mood to express a command, entreaty, or exhortation ; as, 
ame?72, " let me love." This use is alwavs elliptical § 42. 
Obs. 4. 5. 

2. After quasi, tanquam, and the like, it is sometimes ren- 
dered as the imperfect indicative ; as quasi intelltgant 1 u as if 
they understood." 

3. When a question is asked it is frequently rendered 
as the indicative ; as, Eloquar an sileam ? " Shall I speak 
or be silent?" Sometimes by should; as, Singula quid 
referam, " Why should I relate every thing? Sometimes 
by would; as In f acinus jurdsse putes, (t You would think 
they had sworn to commit wickedness." 

II. The Imperfect subjunctive is commonly 
rendered by the signs might, could, would, or 
should, expressing past liberty, power, will, or obli- 
gation; as, scriberem, "I might, could, would, or 
should write." 

1. This tense may relate either to what is past, or present, 
or future ; as, si fata fuissent ut caderem, " if my destiny had 
been that I should fall;" si possem sanior essem, " If I could 
I would be wiser ;" post h<zc prcecipitem darem, " after- 
wards I would throw him down headlong." 

2. Sometimes the imperfect is rendered as the pluperfect ; 
as, si quis diceret, nunquam putarem" &c. " If any one had 
said it, I never would have thought," &c. 



§ 45 THE VERB. TENSES. 91 

3. After quo minus, the whole may often be rendered by 
from with the present participle ; as, Si te tua infirmitas 
valetudinis tenuit, quo minus ad ludos venires. If your 
weak state of health has prevented you from coming to the 
games. So, Ne quis imyedirehtr quo minus ejus rebus 
frleretur. Nep. Deterrere aliquem quo minus, &c. 

III. The Perfect subjunctive is used to denote 
an act or event, spoken of as already past, or 
which will be past at some future time, but 
about which there is at present some contingency 
or uncertainty, in the mind of the speaker. It 
is commonly rendered by the signs may have ; 
&s,fortasse scrlpserim, " perhaps I may have writ- 
ten," implying, " if so, I have at present forgot- 
ten it." 

This general idea is expressed with much variety in 
English, according as the tense stands connected with other 
words in the sentence. This will be best explained by a few 
examples. 

1. It is sometimes rendered like the present, as, ut sic 
dixerim, "that I may so speak." Sometimes like the imper- 
fect ; as, TJbi ego audiverim, " where should I have heard 
it ;" foriasse erraverim " perhaps I might be in an error." 

2. This tense sometimes inclines very much to a future 
signification, and is rendered by should, would, could, can, 
will, shall; as, Citius crediderim, "I should sooner be- 
lieve;" Juv. Libenter audiei&m, "I would gladly hear," 
Cic; Ciceronem cuicunque eorum facile opposuerim, " I could 
easily match Cicero with any of them." Non facile dixerim, 
" I cannot well tell ;" Nee tamert excluserim alios, " and yet I 
will not exclude others." Si paululum modo quid tefuge- 
rit , ego perierim, "If any thing however trifling escape 
you, I shall be undone." Ter. 

3. After quasi, tanquam, and the like, it is sometimes 
rendered by had ; as, quasi affuerim, " As if I had been pre- 
sent ;" — perinde ac si jam ticerint, "just as if they had al- 
ready conquered." 

4. It is sometimes used in concessions ; as, parta sit pe- 
cunia, " suppose the money were gotten." Sometimes as 



92 THE VERB. TENSES, § 46 

the imperative, with the idea of urgency; as, hcec dicta shit 
pat? thus, " Let these things be told quickly to the fathers." 

IV. The Pluperfect subjunctive denotes an ac- 
tion or event contingent at some past time, but 
regarded as to be perfected before another action 
or time subsequent to it and connected with it, 
as ? 

Quodcunque. jussisset me facturum esse dixi, " I said 
(then) that I would do whatever he should order." Here 
his ordering was contingent at the time referred to, (then) 
but it was to take place before the doing connected with it 
so, Id responderunt se facturos esse, cum ille vent.o Aquildne 
Lemnum venisset, " They replied that they would do that when 
he should return to Lemnos with a north wind." In such 
constructions the leading verb is usually in the past tense, or 
in the present used for the past. It is variously rendered by 
would, could, might, had, might have, could have, would 
have, should have, or ought to have ; as, si jussisset, paruissem, 
"If he had commanded, I would have obeyed." Hence ob- 
serve. 

1. That though the action or state is often future in res- 
pect to the time of the leading verb, yet it is past with re- 
gard to the action or state dependent on it. 

2. After quum it is used in the sense of the pluperfect to 
express an action antecedent to another past action connected 
with it ; as, C&sar quum hcec dixisset, profectus est, " When 
Caesar had said these things he departed." Thus used, quum 
with the pluperfect, may be^legantly rendered by the com- 
pound perfect participle in English $ thus the above example 
may be rendered, " Cassar having said these things, departed." 



§ 46. TENSES OF THE IMPERATIVE. 

The Imperative mood in Latin, has only one tense, name- 
ly, the present. Still the act from the nature of this mood 
is necessarily future 5 as, scribe, " write thou." The com- 
mand is present, the act commanded, future. 

The other tenses used imperatively, are the future and fu- 



§ 47 THE VERB. TENSES. 93 

ture-perfect indicative, and the present, and perfect subjunc- 
tive ; which see. 



$ 47. TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. 

The tenses of the Infinitive are three, the Pre- 
sent, the Perfect and the Future, and in the ac- 
tive voice, the Future-perfect. 

In Latin, the tenses of the infinitive express its action as 
past, present, or future, not with regard to the present time, 
as in the other moods, but with regard to the time of the 
leading verb, on which it is dependent, i. e. 

1. The Present Infinitive represents the action or state 
expressed by the verb as present, and going on at the time 
of the leading verb, and consequently must be rendered into 
English iii the time of the leading verb ; as, dixit se scribere, 
"he said that he ivas writing ;" dicit se scribere, "he says 
that he is writing." See No. 5. 

2. The Perfect Infinitive represents the action or state 
expressed by the verb, as past at the time of the leading verb, 
and must be rendered accordingly, i. e., after a past tense, 
by the English Pluperfect ; and after the present, by the Eng- 
lish imperfect or perfect ; as, dixit se scripsisse, " he said 
that he had written;" dicit se scripsisse, "he says that he 
has written." 

3. The Future Infinitive represents the action or state 
expressed by the verb, as future at the time of the leading 
verb, and must be rendered accordingly; as, dixit sescriptu* 
rum esse, " he said that he would write ;" dicit se scriptu- 
rum esse, " he says that he will write." 

4. The future infinitive active is compound, being made up 
of esse, or fuisse, and the participle in -rus agreeing in gen- 
der, number and case with the accusative before it, or with 
the nominative of the leading verb. With esse, it corresponds 
to the future indicative ; with fuisse, to the future-perfect ; 
as, dixit se scripturum esse, " he said that he would write ;" 
dicit eos scripturos esse, " he says that they will write ; 
dixit earn scriptUram fuisse, "he said that she would have 
written ;" dicit se scriptUrum fuisse, " he says that he would 



94 THE VEftB. TENSES. § 47 

have written;' 5 dicitur scripturus esse> "he is said to be 
about to write*" 

Note. 1. Esse and /tmse, in the future infinitive, are generally un- 
derstood thus, dixit se scripturum; and so of others. 

5. When the leading verb is in the future tense, the infi- 
nitive mood will be properly translated in its own tense, not 
in that of the leading verb ; as, dicet se scribere, " he will 
say that he is writing J M dicet se scripsisse, " he will say 
that he has written ;" dicet se scripturum esse, "he will say 
that he will write;" se scripturum fuisse, "that he will have 
written." So also in the passive voice* 

6. The perfect infinitive passive is made up of esse or jfw- 
isse and the perfect participle in ~us, agreeing in gender, num- 
ber and case with the accusative before it, or with the nomi- 
native of the leading verb, when that is in the passive voice ; 
as, dicit liter as scriptas esse, "he says that letters were 
written;" Uteres dicuntur script ce esse, "letters are said to 
have been written," &c. Esse and fuisse&re sometimes un- 
derstood. See Note 1. 

7. The future infinitive passive is also a compound tense, 
consisting of the former supine, and iri the present infinitive 
passive of eo ; as, scriptum iri, "to be about to write." 

8. The future infinitive of deponent verbs, § 72 is made 
with esse or fuisse, and the participle in-rws, as in the active 
voice No. 4, and not like the future infinitive passive. 

9. When the verb in the active voice has no supine, and 
consequently no participle m-rus, there can of course be no 
future infinitive. In this case the want of it is supplied by 
the future infinitive of sum, viz. futurum esse, or fore fol- 
lowed by ut, and the subjunctive in the present or imperfect, 
as the leading verb may require. Thus, dixit fore ut lu- 
geret "he said that he would mourn;" dicit fore ut lugeaf, 
" he says that he will mourn." 

Note. 2. This form of expression is often used both in the active 
and passive, even when the verb has the regular form of the future 
infinitive. § 145. Obs* 6. 

10. Fore the infinitive of sum is used with all participles 
in-us ; as, Commissum cum equitdtu prcdio fore videbat, 
Cses. Deinde addis, te fore ventUrum, Cic. Mitt endos fore 
legdtos. Liv. 

11. The infinitive mood with a subject, i.e. with an accu- 



§ 47 THE VERB. TENSES. 95 

sative before it is usually rendered as the indicative, the par- 
ticle that j being commonly placed before it. The following 
examples will illustrate the method of translating the diffe- 
rent tenses, of the infinitive when preceded by the leading 
verb in present, past, and future time. 

INFINITIVE ACTIVE. 

1 Dicit me scribtre, He says that I write, or am writing 

2 Dixit me s crib ere , He said that I wrote, or was writing. 

3 Dicet me scribtre, He will say that I am writing. 

4 Dicit me scripsisse, He says that I wrote, or did write. 

5 Dixit me scripsisse, He said that I had written. 

6 Dicet me scripsisse, He will say that I have written, or did write. 

7 Dicit me scripturum esse, He says that I will write. 

8 Dixit me scripturum esse, He said that I would write. 

9 Dicet me scriptu um esse, He will say that I will write. 

10 Dicit me scripturum fuisse, He says that I would have written. 

11 Dixit me scripturum. fuisse , He said that I would have written. 

12 Dicet me scripturum fuisse, He will say that I would have written. 

INFINITIVE PASSIVE. 

13 Dicit literas scribi, He says that letters are written, or writing. 

14 Dixit literas scribi, He said that letters were written, or writing. 

15 Dicet literas scribi . He will say that letters are written, or writing. 

16 Dicit literas scriptas esse, He says that letters are. or were written 

17 Dixit literas scriptas esse, He said that letters had been written. 

18 Dicet literas scriptas esse, He will say that letters are, or were 

written. 

19 Dicit literas scriptas fuisse, He says that letters have been written. 

20 Dixit literas scriptas fuisse, He said that letters had been written. 

21 Dicet literas script as fuisse, Re will say that letters have been written. 

22 Dicit literas scriptum iri, He says that letters will be written. 

23 Dixit literas scriptum iri, He said that letters would be written. 

24 Dicet literas scriptum iri, He will say that letters will be written 
Note 3. — When the preceding verb is of the imperfect, or pluper. 

feet tense, the English of the infinitive is the same as when it is of the 
perfect, i. e. is the same as the infinitive after dixit, in the above ta- 
ble. 
Note 4. — As the perfect definite, § 44. Ill, connects the action com 



96 THE VERB.- — TENSES. § 48 

pleted with the present time, the infinitive after it, in this sense, will 
generally be translated as it is after the present ; as, dixit me scri 
b$re } — scripsisse, — scripturum esse, he has said that I am writing, — 
was writing,— will write, i. e. as it is in Examples No. 1, 4, and 
7. With dixit used indefinitely, the infinitive would be rendered as 
in Examples No. 2, 5, and 8. 



§ 48. OF NUMBER AND PERSON. 

1. Every tense of the verb has two numbers, the singu- 
lar and plural, corresponding to the singular and plural of 
Nouns and Pronouns. 

2. In each number, the verb has three persons, called first, 
second and third. The first asserts of the person speaking; 
the second of the person spoken to ; and the third of the per- 
son or thing spoken of. In the Imperative there are only 
two persons, the second and third. 

3. The subject or nominative of the verb in the first per- 
son singular, is always ego, in the plural, nos; in the second 
person singular, tu; in the plural, vos. These are seldom ex- 
pressed, being sufficiently indicated by the termination of the 
verb; as, scribo, "I write;" scriblmus, " we write;" scri- 
bis, " thou writest," scribitis u you write." 

The subject of the verb in the third person, is any person 
or thing spoken of, whether it be expressed by a noun, pro- 
noun, infinitive, gerund, or clause of a sentence; as, vir scri- 
bit, u the man writes;" illi legunt, "they read;" ludere 
jucundurn est, " to play is pleasant;" incertum est, quam 
longa vita futura sit, " how long our life will be is uncer- 
tain." 

4. Two or more nouns or pronouns together may be the 
subject of one verb. If these happen to be of different per- 
sons, the verb takes the first person, rather than the second 
or third, and the second rather than the third ; as, E go, et tu, 
et ille scriblmus, " I and thou and he write." 

5. Pronouns, participles or adjectives having nouns under- 
stood to them, are of the third person. Qui takes the person 
of the antecedent. Ipse may be joined to any person, ac- 
cording to the sense. 

6. To verbs also belong Participles, Gerunds and Supines* 



§ 49 THE VERB. PARTICIPLES. 97 

§ 49. PARTICIPLES. 

1. Participles are parts of the verb which contain no 
affirmation, but express the meaning of the verb considered 
as a general quality or condition of an object ; as, amans, 
" loving ;" doctus, " learned. 5 '■ 

2. Participles belong partly to the verb, and partly to the 
adjective. From the former they have signification, voice 
and tense; from the latter, declension; those in -ns are of the 
third declension, and declined like prudens, § 21.2; all 
others are of the first and second, and declined like bonus, 
§ 20. 1. In construction they have the government of the 
verb, and the concord or agreement of the adjective, § 98. 

3. When the idea of time is separated from the participle, 
it becomes a participial or verbal adjective, and is capable of 
comparison; as, doctus, doctior, doctisstmus, "learned, more 
learned, most learned." 

4. To the same class also belong participles whose mean- 
ing is reversed or modified by composition with words or 
participles never combined with other parts of the same 
verb ; as, innocens, indoctus, impransus, nefandas, &c. 

5. The time of the participle like that of the infinitive is 
estimated from the time of the leading verb ; i. e. the accom- 
panying action or state expressed by the participle is present, 
past, or future, at the time indicated by the leading verb, 
with which it is connected; thus, vzdi eum venientem, "I 
saw him coming." Numa, Curtbiis ndtus, rex credtus est, 
"Numa born at Cures was made king." Elephantes amnem 
transiluri minhnos prcemittunt, "Elephants about to cross a 
river send the smallest first." 

Note 1. — The perfect participle, both of deponent and common 
verbs often expresses an action, nearly or entirely contemporaneous 
with that of the leading verb. In such cases it is better rendered into 
English by the present participle in -ing than by its ordinary render- 
ing 5 as, Hoc f acinus rex miratus juvenem dimisit, " The king admir- 
ing this act dismissed the youth, " Liv. Arbitratus idbellum celeriter 
confici posse, eo exercitum adduxit. Caes. Hac arte Pollux — enistts, 
arces attigit igneas. Hor. Columba fixamque refert delapsa sagittam, 
Virg. Pueri bis seni quemque secuti, agmine partlto , fulgent. So also 
the perfect participle of the active verb, see No. 8, Note 3. 

6. The future passive participle in - dies sometimes expres- 

9 



98 THE VERB. PARTICIPLES. § 49 

ses bare futurity as, his (scil. ventis) qitoqice habendum aera 
permisit, "to these also he gave the region of the air to be 
possessed." But in conjunction with the verb sum and fre- 
quently also in other constructions, it denotes necessity ■, pro- 
priety, or obligation, and hence by inference, futurity 5 as, 
Delendaest Carthago, " Carthage must be destroyed." Facta 
narrdbas dissimulanda tibi, "You were relating facts which 
you should have concealed." 

7. The participle va-dus of transitive verbs is often used 
in the oblique cases in the sense of the gerund. Thus used 
it is called a Geru?idive participle, and agrees with its sub- 
stantive in gender and number 5 and both take the case which 
the gerund would have in the same place, thus; tew pits pe- 
tendce pacts, by the gerund, is pet endi pdce??i ; " time of seek- 
ing peace," rerum repetunddrum causd "for the sake of de- 
manding redress," by the gerund, repetundi res. 

Note 2. — Crombie, as well as Perizonius, to whom he refers, thinks 
that the participle in-dus, is strictly and properly a present passive 
participle j that the ideas of futurity as well as of necessity or obliga- 
gation supposed to be expressed by it, are not inherent in the word, 
but have come by usage to be assigned to it, in certain connexions. It 
is certain the arguments in support of this opinion, are not without 
great weight, yet as no inconvenience can arise from regarding it as 
future, and as necessity, obligation, propriety, and consequently fu- 
turity are commonly expressed by it, it has been thought proper to 
retain the usual designation. Still if the opinion just stated is cor- 
rect, it affords an easy and natural explanation of what is called the 
gerundive use of this participle • it is only expressing by a passive 
form in Latin, an idea which we now commonly express in English, 
by the active form Thus, 

Active form ; tempus petendi pacem, " time of seeking peace." 
Passive form ; tempus petendce pacis, " time of peace being sought." 
These different forms express the same idea both in Latin and 
English, but as the passive form is not usual in English, the active 
is used as the rendering of both forms in Latin. 

8. The Latin language has no perfect participle in the ac- 
tive voice, nor present participle in the passive, unless the 
participle in -dus be so considered. The want of the former 
is made up in two ways. First, by the perfect participle 
passive in the case absolute as, Ccesar, his dictis, profectus est, 
"Caesar, (these things being said, i. e.) having said these 
things departed." And Secondly, by qiacm with the pluper- 



§ 60 GERUNDS AND SUPINES. 99 

feet subjunctive; as, Ccesar, quum hcec dixisset, profectus 
est, "Caesar (when he had said, i. e.) having said these things, 
departed," 

Note 3 — .The want of the present participle passive, is made up 
either by the perfect participle, or by the future participle in -dus, both 
of which appear to be sometimes used in a present sense j as, Notus 
evHat piced tectus caligine 7 " Notus flies forth (being) covered with 
pitchy darkness, Ovid. Volvenda dies en attulit ultro, "Lo! re- 
volving time (lit. time being rolled on) hath of itself brought about." 
Virg. Or by the gerundive form of expression as in No. 7, together 
with Note 2. See also, No. 5, Note 1, 

9. Transitive (or Active) verbs have four participles of 
which the present in -ns, and the future in -rus, belong to 
the active voice j the perfect in -tus, ~sus, or -xus, and the 
future in -dus, to the passive. 

10. Intransitive (or Neuter) verbs have two participles, 
namely, the present in -ns, and the future in -ncs; frequently 
also the future passive in -dus, and also the perfect passive. 

11. Neuter passive verbs have commonly three participles, 
namely, the present, perfect, and future in -rus, § 78. 

12. Deponent verbs of an active signification have general- 
ly four participles , those of a neuter signification commonly 
want the future in -dus, except that the neuter in -dum is 
sometimes used impersonally. 

13. Common verbs have generally four participles, of 
which the perfect only is used both in an active and passive 
senses as, adeptusvictoriam, " having obtained the victory;" 
victoria adept a, u the victory being obtained ;" the rest are ac- 
tive, § 72. Obs. 2. 

14. Some Intransitive verbs, though they have no pas- 
sive, yet have participles of the perfect passive form, but 
still with an intransitive signification ; such are casndtus, 
<4 having supped ;" pransus, " having dined f juratus, 
" having, sworn." 



§ 50. GERUNDS AND SUPINES. 

The Gerund is a kind of verbal noun used only in the 
singular number. It represents the action or state ex- 
pressed by the verb as a thing now going on, and at the same 



100 VERBS. CONJUGATION. § 61 

time, if in the nominative, or in the accusative before the in- 
finitive as the subject of discourse ; and if in the oblique 
cases, as the object of some action or relation. They are 
construed in all respects as nouns, and also govern the case 
of their verbs, § 147. 

In meaning and use, the gerund resembles the English pre- 
sent participle, used as a noun. See Eng. Gr. § 30. 7, and 
the Greek infinitive with the article prefixed. See Gr. Gr. 
$ 173. 

Supines are defective verbal nouns of the fourth declen- 
sion, having only the accusative and ablative singular. 

The supine in -um has an active signification and governs 
the case of the verb, § 116. Exp. 

The supine in -u has usually a passive signification, and 
governs no case. 



$ 51. CONJUGATION OF REGULAR VERBS. 

1. Regular verbs are those in which the secondary parts 
are formed from the primary, according to certain rules, § 52, 

2. The Conjugation of a verb is the regular combination 
and arrangement of its several voices, moods, tenses? 7iumbers 
and "persons. 

3. Of regular verbs in Latin, there are four conjugations, 
called the First, Second, Third and Fourth. These are 
distinguished from each other by the vowel before -re, in the 
present infinitive active 5 thus, 

The First conjugation has a long before ~re of the infinitive. 

The Second has c long before -re of the infinitive. 

The Third has e short before -re of the infinitive. 

The Fourth has I long before -re of the infinitive. 

Exc. Dare and its compounds of the first conjugation have 
a short. 

4. The primary tenses or parts of the verb from which 
all the other parts are formed, are four, namely, -o of the 
present indicative, -re of the present infinitive, -4 of the per- 
fect indicative, and -um of the supine. The giving of these 



§ 51 VERBS. CONJUGATION. 101 

T>arts in the order just mentioned is called conjugating the 
vei'b; thus, 





Pres. Lid, 


Pres. Inf. 


Perf. hid. 


1st Supz?ie, 


1st Conj. 


Amo, 


amare, 


amavi, 


amatum. 


2d 


Moneo, 


monere, 


monui, 


monitum. 


3d 


Rego, 


regere, 


rexi, 


rectum. 


ith 


Audio, 


audire, 


audivi, 


audi turn. 



The manner of conjugating each verb being accurately as- 
certained from the Dictionary, the other tenses may be formed 
with certainty by the rules laid down in the next section.* 

* Though general rules may be, and have been laid down to form 
the primary tenses, from the general root or stem of the verb, yet 
there is such a multitude of exceptions in the third conjugation, (and 
some in the others also,) which it is impossible to bring under any rule, 
that it will be found indispensable, after all, to learn the conjugation 
of each verb from the diciionary or from the table of irregular con- 
jugations. § 81. For this reason they are here omitted in the text as 
useless for any practical purpose. The principle methods proposed 
are in substance the two following .- 

First. The general root or stem that runs through the whole verb, 
consists of the letters preceding the infinitive terminations, -are, -ere, 
ere, -Ire. 

To form the primary tenses there is added to the general root as 
follows : 

Pr. Ind. Pr. Inf. 
in the 1st. Conj. -o, -are, 

i4 2d. " -eo, -ere, 

" 3d. " -o, &-io, -ere, 

" 4th. " -io, -Ire, 

In the Perfect of the third Conjugation observe, 

1. If the root of the verb ends with a vowel, the termination added 
> r * -i; as actio, root acu, perfect acui. 

2. If the root of the verb ends with a consonant, the usual termi- 
nation is -si, which in uniting with the root causes, the following 
changes, viz. 

1st. If the letter preceding -si be c, g, h, or qu, it unites with the s 
and forms x ; as, duco {duc-si) duxi; jingo, (fing-si,) finxij 
traho, (trah-si) traxi ; coquo, (coqu-si) coxi. 

2d. The letter b before -si is changed into p j as, scribo, scripsi. 

3d. When d precedes -si, either the d or the s is rejected j as, de- 
fendo, defendi; claudo, clausi. 

4th. The 5 is dropped in many verbs which cannot be brought un- 
der any definite rule ; as, lego, legi ; emo, emi. 

In the Supine of the third Conjugation observe, 

1. When the root of the verb ends in a vowel the supine adds -turn 
and lengthens the vowel preceding it ; as, acuo, acutum. 

9* 



Perf. Ind. 


1st. Supine. 


-avi, 


-atum. 


-ui, 


-itum. 


-i & -si, 


-turn, & -sum. 


-1V1, 


-itum. 



102 THE VERB. FORMATION OF TENSES, § 52 

§ 52. FORMATION OF THE TENSES IN THE AC- 
TIVE VOICE. 

I. Indicative Mood. 

L The Present is a primary tense. 

2. The Imperfect is formed from the present by changing, 
in the 1st Conj. -0 into -abam; as, am-o, am-abam, 
in the 2d -eo into -ebam; as, mon-eo, mo?i-ebam, 

in the 3d and 4th -0 into -ebam; as j re ^ ' reg^bam, 

( aitai-o, auaz-ebam. 

2. When the root ends with a consonant, the supine adds -ium 

sometimes -sum. In uniting with the root, the following changes 

for the sake of euphony take place ; viz. 

1st. The letter b, before -turn is changed into p; as scribo, scriptum. 

2d. The letters g, h, and qu, before -turn are changed into c ; as, 

rego. rectum; traho, tr actum ; coquo, coctum. 
3d. The letter g before -sum when a vowel precedes, unites with the 
5 and forms x; as, figo, (fig-sum) fixum-, when r precedes, 
the g is rejected; as, tergo, tersum. 
4th. The letter d before -sum is rejected as defendo, defensum. 
Secondly. The general root being found as before ; then, to form 
the second root in the first, second, and fourth conjugations, (i. e. the 
root of the perfect tense,) add -av for the first, -u for the second, 
and -iv for the fourth ; as, am, amav ; mon, monu ; aud, audiv. 

To form the third root (i. e. the root of the supine,) in the same 
conjugations, add to the general root the syllables -atu } -Itu, and 
-itu ; as, am, amatu ; mon monitu ; aud, auditu. 

The three roots being thus found, the primary tenses are formed as 
follows ; viz: 

1. From the first root the present indicative is formed, 

in the 1st conjugation by adding -0, as, am, a?n-o. 

in the 2d " by adding -eo, as, mon, mon-eo. 

in the 3d " by adding -o,or-io, as, reg, reg-o. 

in the 4th " by adding -to, as, aud, aud-io. 

2. From the same root the present infinitive is formed, 

in the 1st conjugation by adding -are, as, am, am-dre. 

in the 2d " by adding -ere, as, mon, mon-ere. 

in the 3d " by adding -ere, as, reg, reg-ere. 

in the 4th " by adding -ire, as, aud, aud-ire. 

3. From the second root in all conjugations, the perfect is formed 
by addingi; as, amav-i, monu-i, audiv-i. 

4. From the third root in all conjugations, the first supine is formed 
by adding m ; as, amdtu-m, monitu-m, &c. 

The third conjugation is so irregular in the formation of its roots, 
that no rules are attempted. 

The first of these methods is substantially that offered in the Gram- 
mar of Zumpt. The second is the plan of Andrews and Stoddart, 
which they carry out by applying it to all the tenses as well as to the 
primary. 



§ 52 THE VEIIB. FORMATION OF TENSES. 103 

3. The Perfect is a primary tense. 

4. The Pluperfect in all conjugations is formed from the 
perfect, by changing -i into -eram; as, amdv-i, amav-eram ; 
mouu-i, monu-eram, &c. 

5. The Future is formed from the present by changing — 
in the lsteonjugaton-o into -dbo; as, a?n-o, am-dbo. 
in the 2d, -eo into -ebo; as, mon-eo, mon-ebo. 

in the 3d and 4th, * into -am; as, \ re§ :?> re g' am * 

1 ( auaz-o, audz-am. 

6. The Future- perfect in all conjugations is formed from 
the perfect, by changing -i into -ero; as, amav-i, amav-ero; 
monu-i, monu-ero, &c. 

II. The Subjunctive Mood. 

7. The Present Subjunctive is formed from the present 
indicative, by changing, — in the first conjugation, -o into -em; 
as, flw-o, am-em; in the second, third and fourth, by changing 
-o into -am ; as, mo?ie-o, mone-am; reg-o, reg-am; audi-o, 
audi- am. 

8. The Imperfect Subjunctive in all conjugations is form- 
ed from the present infinitive by adding m; as, amdre, amdrem; 
monlre, monlrem, regere, regerem, &c. 

9. The Perfect Subjunctive is formed from the perfect 
indicative by changing -i into -erim\ as, amdv-i, amdv-erim; 
monu-i, monu-erim, &c. 

10. The Pluperfect Subjunctive is formed from the perfect 
indicative by changing -i into -issem; as, amdv-i, amdv-issem ) 
??wnu-i, monu-issem, &c. 

III. The Imperative Mood. 

11. The Present Imperative is formed from the present 
infinitive by taking away -re; as, amdre, amd; monere, mo- 
ne; regere, rege; audzre, audi. 

IV. The Infinitive Mood. 

12. The Present Infinitive is a primary tense. 

13. The Perfect Infinitive, is formed from the perfect 
indicative by changing -i into, -isse; as, amcLz^i, amdv-isse; 
monu-i) monu-isse, &c. 



104 THE VERB. FORMATION OF TENSES. § 53 

14. The Future Infinitive is a compound tense, made up 
of esse or fuisse, and the future participle in -rus; as, esse or 
fuisse amaturus,-a,-um; esse or fuisse monitUru$,-a,-um 9 &c. 

V. Participles, Gerunds and Supines* 

15. The Present Participle is formed from the present in- 
dicative by changing, 

-0 in the 1st Conjug. into -ans; as, am-o, am-ans. 
-eo in the 2d " into -ens; as, mon-eo,mon-ens. 

-o in the 3d and 4th into -ens; as, < r ^\ ?' °? . ' 

( auaz-o, auaz-ens* 

16. The Future Participle is formed from the former su- 
pine by changing -urn into -urus; as, amdt-um, amat-Urus; 
monit-um, moiut-urus, &c. 

17 The Gerund is formed from the present indicative by 

changing, 

-0 in the 1st Conj, into -andum; as, am-o y am-andum, 
-eo in the 2d " into -endum; as, mon-eo, mon-endum. 

-o in the 3d and 4th into -endum; as, \ 1 K^ re §"f n urn, 

1 I audz-o, audz-endum* 

18. The Former Supine is a primary part of the verb. 

19. The Latter Supine is formed from the former by drop- 
ping m; as, amatum, amdtu; moratum, monitu, &c. 



§ 53. FORMATION OF THE TENSES IN THE PAS- 
SIVE VOICE. 

1. In the Indicative mood, the Present tense is formed 
from the present active by adding r ; as, amo, amor ; moneo, 
moneor, &c. In the imperfect and future from the same tenses 
in the active voice, by changing m into r ; as, amabam, 
amdbar ; — or adding r to bo ; as, monebo, monebor, &e. 

2. In the Subjunctive mood, the Present and Imperfect are 
formed from the same tenses in the active, by changing m 
intor; as, amem, amer ; moneam, monear, &c. 

3. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future-perfect Indica-' 
tive, and the Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are compound 



§ 54 THE VERB. SUM. 105 

tenses, made up of the perfect participle passive, and the verb 
sum, as an auxiliary, as exhibited in the paradigm of these 
tenses. 

4. The Imperative in all verbs is formed by adding -re to 
the imperative active; as, a?nd, amdre; mone, monere, &c. 
Hence, the imperative passive is like the present infinitive 
active. 

5. The Present Infinitive is formed from the present infini- 
tive active by changing -re in the first, second, and fourth con- 
jugations, into -ri; as, amd-re, amd-ri; mone-re, monZ-ri; 
andl-re, audi-ri ; and by changing -ere in the third into -z; 
as, reg-ere, reg-i. 

The Perfect infinitive is a compound tense, made up of 
the perfect participle, and esse or fuisse prefixed; as, esse or 
fuisse amdtus, -a, -urn, &c. 

The Future Infinitive is also a compound tense, made up 
of the former supine and m, the present infinitive passive 
of eo ; as, amdtumiri; monitum iri> &c. 

6. The Perfect Participle is formed from the former supine 
by changing -urn into -us; aSjarndt-um, amdt-us; momt-um, 
momt-us, &c. 

The Future Participle is formed as the active gerund by 
putting -dus instead of -dum ; as, Gerund, amandum, Part. 
amandus; Gerund, monendu??i, Part, monendus, &c. 



§ 54. THE IRREGULAR VERB SUM * 

This verb is sometimes called a substantive verb, as it de- 
notes being, or simple existence; as, sum, "I am," "I ex- 
ist." Sometimes it is called auxiliary, because it is used 
as an auxiliary verb in the conjugation of the passive voice. 
It is conjugated thus, 

* This verb being irregular, properly belongs to § 83. but is insert- 
ed here because, as an auxiliary, it is much used in the inflection of 
regular verbs. 



106 THE VERB. SUM. § 54 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Per/. Ind. 

Sum, esse, fui. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, am. 
Sing. 1. .Ego Sum,* lam, 

2. Tu Es, Thowf art, or you are, 

3. Ille Est, He is; 
Plur. 1. Nos Sumus, We are, 

2. Vos Estis, Ye, or you are, 

3. Illi Sunt, They are. 

Imperfect, was. 
Sing. 1. Eram, I was, 

2. Eras, Thou wast, or you were, 

3. Erat, He was ; 
Plur. 1. Eramus, We were, 

2. Eratis, Ye, or you were, 

3. Erant, They were. 

Perfect Definite, have been; Indefinite, was. 
Sing. 1. Fui, I have been, 

2. Fuisti, Thou hast been, 

3. Fuit, He has been; 
Plur. 1. Fuimus, We have been, 

2. Fuistis, Ye have been, 

3. Fuerunt, or fuere, They have been. 

Pluperfect, had been. 
Sing. 1. Fueram, I had been, 

2. Fueras, Thou hadst been, 

3. Fuerat, He had been; 
Plur. 1. Fueramus, We had been, 

2. Fueratis, Ye had been, 

3. Fuerant, They had been. 



* In the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative mood, every part 
of the verb must have its Nominative expressed or understood. See 
§ 48. 3. The nominatives, Ego, tu, ille, of the singular, and Nos, 
vos, illi, of the plural, are here prefixed in the present tense, to show 
their place and their use; but in the following tenses, and in the fol- 
lowing conjugations they are omitted. Still they are to be regarded 
as understood, and may be supplied at pleasure. 

t See § 28. Note. In the plural, " you" is much more common 
than " ye " which is now seldom used. 



§ 54 THE VERB. SUM. 107 

Future, shall,or will. 

Sing. 1. Ero, I shall, or will be, 

2. Eris, Thau shalt,o^ wilt be, 

3. Erit, He shall, or will be ; 
Plur. 1. Erimus, We shall, or will be, 

2, Eritis, Ye shall, or will be, 

3. Erunt, TAey shall, or w;27Z £e. 

Future-perfect, shall, or z#z7Z Aa^e Z>ee?z. 

Sing. 1. Fuero, I shall, or w;z7Z ^are &ee?2, 

2. Fueris, Thou shalt, or i027£ Aare been, 

3. Fuerit, ile 5-AaZZ, or will have been; 
Plur, 1. Fuerimus, We shall, or will have been, 

2. Fu eritis, Ye shall, or z^z7Z /tare been, 

3. Fuerint, TAe?/ sAaZZ, or will have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, may, or can. 

Sing. 1. Sim, I may or can be, 

2. Sis, Thou may st, or canst be, 

3. Sit, He may or ca?z Z>e; 
Plur. 1. Simus, We 772a?/ or can be, 

2. Sitis, Ye may or c#?2 Z>e, 

3. Sint, They may or can be. 

Imperfect might, could, would, or should. 

Sing. 1. Essem, I might, could, &c. 5e, 

2. Esses, Thaumightst, &c. Z>e, 

3. Esset, He might, &c. &e ; 

PZwr. 1. Ess emus, We might, &c. £e, 

2. Essetis, Ye might, &c. Z>e, 

3. Essent, They might, &c. be. 

Perfect, may have. 

Sing, 1. Fuerim, I may have been, 

2. Fueris, Thau mayst have been, 

3. Fuerit, He may have been; 

Plur, 1. Fuerimus, We may have been, 

2. Fu eritis, Ye may have been, 

3. Fuerint, They may have been. 



10S 



THE VERB SUM. 



§64 



Pluperfect, might, could, would or should have. 



Sing, 1. Fuissem, 

2. Fuisses, 

3. Fuisset, 

Plur, 1. Fuissemus, 

2. Fuissetis, 

3. Fuissent, 



I might, &c. Aa?-e foeTz, 
TAo^ mightst, &c. A<zre Z>eett, 
He might, &c. have been; 
We might, &c. havebeen, 
Ye might, &c. A#re foew, 
TAe?/ might, &c. A#i?e 2>eerc. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



Sing, 2. 
3. 


Es, or Esto, 2?e thou, 
Esto, .Le£ Aim £e; 


PZ^r. 2. 
3. 


Este, or estote, Be ye, 
Sunto, Let them be* 




INFINITIVE MOOD. 


Pres. 
Perf. 

FUT. 

F.Perf. 


Esse, To be, $47. 11. 
Fuisse, To have been, 
Esse futurus, -a, -urn, To be about to be, 
Fuisse futurus, -a,-um, To have been about to be. 




PARTICIPLE. 



Future. Futurus, -a, -urn, About to be. 

Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses 





Indicative. 


Sub junc. 


Imperative. 


Infinitive. 


Pres. 


sum. 


sim. 


es or esto. 


esse. 


Imp. 


eram. 


essem. 






Perf. 


fai. 


fuerim. 




fuisse. 


Plup. 


fueram. 


fuissem. 






Put. 


ero. 






esse futurus. 


P-perf. 


fuero. 






fuisse futurus. 



Part, 



futurus. 



Obs. 



1. The compounds of sum; namely, adsum, absum, 
desum, insum, intersum, obsum, pr&sum, subsum, super- 
sum, are conjugated like the simple verb ; but insum, and 
subsum want the perfect, and the tenses formed from it. 
Prosum, and 'possum, from potis and sum are very irregular, 
§ 83. 1. 2. 

Obs, 2. Instead of Essem, forem is sometimes used, and 
also fore, instead of fuisse. 

Obs. 3. The participle ens is not in use, but appears in 
two compounds, absens, and prcesens. 



§ 55 THE VERB. SUM. 109 

Note. — The great irregularity of this verb arises from the different 
parts being formed from different themes ; viz. the parts beginning 
with e from eo, the root of the Greek €if/J, and those beginning with 
/ from fiio the same as the Greek pj w . 



§ 55. EXERCISES ON SUM AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 

1. Give the designation of the verb, — conjugate it, — give the tense, 
mood, person, number, and translation of the following words, always 
observing the same order; thus, — Sum, Verb, intran., irregular; found 
in the present, indicative, first person, singular, tk lam." — Fuit, V. 
neut. irr. found in the perf. hid. 3d pers. sing.; definite, " he has 
been," indefinite " he was."* 

Est, erat, erit, fueram, fuerim, fuero, sit, esset, fuisti, fui- 
mus, fuerunt, fuere, erunt, sint, siimus, erant, essent, fuis- 
sent, esse, esto, sunto, fuisse, es, eras, fu eras, fuistis, futu- 
rus esse, futurus, sint, &c. ad libitum. 

2. Translate the following English words into Latin, naming the 
part of the verb used; thus, — " I will be," tro, in the future ind. 
1st pers. sing. The Latin word for J, thou, he. we, you, they, to be 
omitted or inserted at pleasure. f 

We are, they were, you have been, thou hast been, they 
will be, he may be, I shall have been, to be, be thou, let them 
be, about to be, to be about to be, we should be, we should 
have been, I may have been, they will have been, they may 
have been, they have been, you were, thou wast, he is, they 
are, &c. ad libitum. 

m In these and all following exercises on the verb, it will be of 
great importance, in order to form habits of accuracy, and as a pre- 
paration for future exercises in translating and parsing, to require 
the pupil in this manner to state every thing belonging to a verb in 
the order here indicated, or in any other the teacher may direct, al- 
ways, however, observing the same. And also for the saving of 
time and unnecessary labor, to state them in the fewest words possi- 
ble, and without waiting to have every word drawn from him by 
questions. 

t N. B. It will be a profitable exercise to require each pupil to 
write out the Latin for these and other English words that may be 
dictated, — carefully to mark the quantity of long and short vowels, 
and to pronounce them correctly after they are written. 

10 



110 THE VERB. FIRST CONJUGATION. §56 

§ 56. FIRST CONJUGATION. 
ACTIVE VOICE. 
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Supine. 

Amo, amare, amavi, amatum, To love. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, love, do love, am loving, § 44. I. 

Sing. 1. Am-o, I love, do love, am loving, 

2. Am-as, Thou lovest, dost love, art loving , 

3. Am-at, He loves, does love, is loving; 

Plur. 1. Am-amus, We love, do love, are loving, 

2. Am-atis, Ye or you love, do love, are loving^ 

3. Am-ant, They love, do love, are loving. 

Imperfect loved, did love, was loving, § 44. II. 

S. 1 . Am-abam, I loved, did love, was loving, 

2. Am-abas, Thoulovedst, didst love, wast loving , 

3. Am-abat, He loved, did love, was loving; 

P. 1. Am-abamus, We loved, did love, were loving, 

2. Am-abatis, Ye loved, did love, were loving, 

3. Am-abant They loved, did love, were loving. 

Perfect Def. have loved; Indef. loved, did love, § 44. III. 

S. 1. Am-avi, I have loved, loved, did love, 

2. Am-avisti, Thou hast loved, lovedst, didst love, 

3. Am-avit, He has loved, loved, did love; 

P. 1. Am-avimus, We have loved, loved, did love, 

2. Am-avistis, Ye have loved, loved, did love, 

. . ' £ They have loved, loved, did love. 

Pluperfect, had loved. § 44. IV. 

S. 1. Am-averam, I had loved, 

2. Am-averas, Thou hadst loved, 

3. Am-averat, He had loved; 
P. 1. Am-averamus, We had loved, 

2. Am-averatis, Ye had loved, 

3. Am-averant, They had loved. 



§ 56 THE VERB. FIRST CONJUGATION. Ill 

Future, shall, or will lave, $ 44. V. 

S, 1. Am-abo, I shall, or will love, 

2. Am-abis, Thou shalt, or wilt love, 

3. Am-abit, He shall, or will love; 
P. 1. Am-abimus, We shall, or will love, 

2. Am-abitis, Ye shall, or will love, 

3. Am-abunt, TAey shall or w;z7Z Zoi?e. 

Future-perfect, shall or z#e7Z A#ue loved, § 44. VI. 

S. 1. Am-avero, I shall, ox will have loved, 

2. Am-averis, Thou shall, or t#z7Z A<zre loved, 

3. Am-averit, ii/e s.^aZZ, or will have loved; 
P. 1. Am-averimus, We shall, or will have loved, 

2. Am-averitis, Ye shall, or 2#z7Z have loved, 

3. Am-averint, TAey shall, or W27Z Aaue loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present tense, may, or can love, § 45. I. 

S. 1. Am-em, I may, or can love, 

2. Am-es, Thou mayest, or ca?w? Zot?6, 

3. Am-et, He may, or can love; 
P. 1. Am-emus, We may, or c## Zoue, 

2. Am-etis, Ye raay, or can love, 

3. Am-ent, TAey may, or cara Zove. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should love, § 45. II* 

S. 1. Am-arem, I might, &c. Zoi;e, 

2. Am-ares, TAo& mightst, &c Zoye, 

3. Am aret, He might, &c. Zoue; 
P. 1. Am-aremus, We might, &c. Zoue, 

2. Am-aretis, Ye might, &c. Zoue, 

3. Am-arent, They might, &c. love. 

Perfect, may have loved, § 45. III. 

S. 1. Am-averim, I may have loved, 

2. Am-averis, TAoi£ mayest have loved, 

3. Am-averit, He may have loved ; 
P. 1. Am-averimus, We may have loved, 

2. Am-averitis, Ye may have loved, 

3. Am-averint, They may have loved. 



112 



THE VERB. FIRST CONJUGATION. 



§ 56 



Pluperfect, might, could, zaould, or should have, § 45. IV. 



S. 1. Am-avissem, 

2. Am-avisses, 

3. Am-avisset, 
P. 1. Am-avissemus, 

2. Am-avissetis, 

3. Am-avissent, 



I might, &c. have loved, 
Thou mightst,&c. have loved y 
He might, &c. have loved; 
Wemight, &c. have loved, 
Ye might, &c. have lovedj 
They might, &c. have loved. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD, § 42. 

2. Am-a, or am-ato, Love thou, 

3. Am-ato, Let him love; 

2. Am-ate, or am-atote, Love ye, 

3. Am-anto. Let them love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Am-are, To love, § 47, 11. 

Am-avisse, To have loved, 

Esse am-aturus, -a, -um, To be about to love y 
F-perf. Fuisse am-attirus, -a, -um, To have been about to love* 

PARTICIPLES. 
Am-ans, Loving. 

Am-aturus, -a, -um, About to love. 

GERUNDS. 



Sing. 



Plur. 



Pres. 
Perf. 

FUT. 



Pres 
Fut. 



Nom. Am-andum, 

Gen. Am-andi, 

Dot. Am-ando, 

Ace. Am-andum, 

Abl. Am-ando, 

SUPINES. 
Former, Am-atum, 
Latter, Am-atu, 



Loving, 
Of loving. 
To loving, 
Loving, 
With,from,8zc. loving 

To love. 

To be loved, to love. 



Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 



Pres. 

Imp. 
Per/. 
Plup. 
Fut. 
F. perf. i 

Cre-o, 
Voc-o, 
Dom-o, 



Indicative. 
Amo, 
Amabam, 
Amavi, 
Amaveram 
Amabo, 
Amavero. 



Subjunctive. 

Amem, 

Amarem, 

Amaverim, 

Amavissem. 



Imp. 
Ama 



Infinitive. 
Amare, 

Amavisse, 



Participle 
Amans, 



Amaturus. 



Esse amaturus. 
Fuisse amaturus. 

After the same manner inflect, 

cre-are, cre-avi, cre-atum, To create. 

voc-are, voc-avi, voc-atum, To call. 

dom-are, dom-ui, dom-itum, To tame. 



§ 57 THE VERB.— FIRST CONJUGATION. 113 

§ 57. EXERCISES ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION, 
ACTIVE VOICE. 

1. Give the designation of the verb, conjugate it, give the tense,— 
mood, — voice, —per son, — number and translation of the following 
words, always observing the same rder; thus, — Amo, Verb, trans., 
first, amo, amare, amavi, amdtum. It is found in the present, ind. ac- 
tive j first person singular, " I love." " I do love," " I am loving." 

Amabat, amaverat, amet, amaveritis, amabunt, creavimus, 
creaverat, domuerat, domuisset, amavero, domuero, vocave- 
rirn, voca, vocare, doma, creavisse, domuisse, amaturus, do- 
miturus, amans, amandum, amatu, domitum, domabam, doma- 
in, — creat, crearet, amaret, amavisti, amavere, domuistis, 
amato, amando, amaverunt, creare, vocaverunt, vocaverint, 
vocabunt, vocaretis, domabitis, &c. &c. ad libitum. 

2. Translate the following English words into Latin, giving the 
part of the verb used; thus, — " I was loving," amdbam, in the im- 
perfect indicative act. first person singular. 

He will love, I might love, I had loved, I might have lov- 
ed, he shall love, I may love, he created, I called, I may have 
called, he will tame, he has tamed, he would have tamed, love 
thou, let them love, to love, about to love, of loving, to have 
loved, they were loving, they have loved, thou hast creat- 
ed, thou hast tamed, &c. ad libitum. 

3. The Infinitive with a subject. The infinitive after another verb, 
and with an accusative before it as its subject, is translated into Eng- 
lish in the indicative or potential mood ; and the accusative in Latin 
is made the nominative in English ; as dicit me amare, u he says that 
I love." The accusatives are thus translated ; 

me, that I ; nos, that we ; hominem, that the man. 

te, that thou ; vos, that you ; homines, that the men. 

ilium, that he; illos, that they; feminas, that the women. 
Infinitives after verbs of the present, past and future tenses, are 
rendered as in the examples, § 47- 11 ; or according to the following 
rules j viz. 

Rule I. When the preceding verb is of the present or future tense, 
the present infinitive is translated as the present indicative ; the perfect 
infinitive as the perfect indicative ; and the future infinitive as the fu~ 
ture indicative, § 47. 11. Nos. 1. 4. 7. also 3- 6. 9. 

Rule II. When the preceding verb is in past time, (i. e. in the wi- 
per feet, perfect, or pluperfect tense,) the present infinitive is transla* 

10* 



114 THE VERB. FIRST CONJUGATION. § 58 

ted as the imperfect, or perfect indicative ; the perfect infinitive as the 
pluperfect indicative ; and the future infinitive as the imperfect sub' 
junctive, § 47. 11. Nos. 2, 5, 8. 

Rule III. The Future perfect of the infinitive with a subject is al- 
ways translated as the pluperfect subjunctive, whatever be the tense of 
the preceding verb . § 47. 11. Nos. 10. 11. 12. 

4. According to the preceding rules and the examples referred to, 
translate the following sentences into English — observing that dicit, 
" he says/' is present time ; dixit, il he said," past; and dicet, u he 
will say," future. 

Dicit me vocare, — teamare, — nos amavisse, — vos amaturos 
esse, — nos amaturos fuisse, illos domare, — te amaturum esse. 

Dixit me vocare, — te amare, — nos amavisse — nos amaturSs 
esse, — nos amaturos fuisse, — vos domare, — te amaturum esse. 

Dixit nos vocare, dicet ilium creare, dicit te creaturum 
esse, dixit se amaturum, (§ 47. Note 1.) dicit illos creaturos, 
ilium vocaturum, vos domituros esse, domituros fuisse, &c. 

5. Translate the following English into Latin, taking care to put 
the participle of the future infinitive in the same gender, number, and 
case, as the accusative preceding it. 

He said that I loved, — that I was calling. He says that 
they will tame, — that I would have created, — that they will 
call, — that he loves. He will say that I love, — that I have 
loved, — that I will love. He said that I had called, — that 
they would have called, — that they tamed, — that they would 
tame, — that he would have tamed, &c. 



$ 58, PASSIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf Part. 

Amor, Amari, Amatus, To be loved. 

INF NATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, am loved, § 44. 1. 6. 
S. 1. Am-or, I am loved, 

2. Am-aris, or -are, Thou art loved, 

3. Am-atur , He is loved ; 
P. 1. Am-amur, We are loved, 

2. Am-amini, Ye are loved, 

3. Am-antur. They are loved. 



§ 58 THE VERB. FIRST CONJUGATION. 115 

Imperfect, was loved, § 44. II. 4. 

S. 1. Am-abar, I was loved, 

2. Am-abaris, or -abare, Thou wast loved, 

3. Am-abatur, He was loved; 
P. 1. Am-abamur, We were loved, 

2. Am-abamini, Ye were loved, 

3. Am-abantur, They were loved* 

Perfect, have been loved, was loved, am loved, § 44. III. 5. 
S. 1. Am-atus* sum, or fui, I have been loved, &c. 

2. Am-atus es, or fuisti, Thou hast been loved, 

3. Am-atus est, or fuit, He has been loved; 
P. 1. Am-ati sumus, or fuimus, We have been loved, 

2. Am-ati estis, or fuistis, Ye have been loved, 

3. Am-ati sunt,fuerunt, or fuere, They have been loved. 

Pluperfect, had been loved, § 44. IV. 2. and Note, 

S. 1. Am-atus eram, or fueram, I had been loved, 

2. Am-atus eras, or fueras, Thou hadst been loved, 

3. Am-atus erat, or fuerat, He had been loved; 
P. 1. Am-ati eramus, or fueramus, We had been loved, 

2. Am-ati eratis, or fueratis, Ye had been loved, 

3. Am-ati erant, or fuerant, They had been loved. 

Future, shall, or tvill be loved. 
S. 1. Am-abor, I shall, or ivillbe loved, 

2. Am-aberis, or -abere, Thou shall, or wilt be loved, 

3. Am-abitur, He shall, or will be loved; 
P. 1. Am-abimur, We shall, or will be loved, 

2. Am-abimmi, Ye shall, or will be loved, 

3. Am-abuntur, They shall, or will be loved. 

Future-perfect, shall, or will have been loved. 
S. 1. Am-atus fuero,* I shall have been loved, 

2. Am-atus fueris, Thou wilt have been loved, 

3. Am-atus fuerit, He.ivill have been loved; 
P. 1. Am-ati fuerimus, We shall have been loved, 

2. Am-ati fueritis, Ye will have been loved, 

3. Am-ati fuerint, They will have been loved. 

* See § 44. III. 6. Note. Fui and fuisti, are very seldom found with 
the Perfect Participle. Ero, as well as futro, is used in the Future* 
Perfect. 



116 THE VERB. FIRST CONJUGATION. § 58 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may, or can be loved. 

S. 1. Am-er, I may, or can be loved, 

2. Am-eris, or -ere, Thou mayest or canst be loved. 

3. Am-etur, He may, or can be loved ; 
P. 1. Am-emur, We may, or can be loved, 

2. Am-emmi, Ye may, or can be loved, 

3. Am-entur. They may, or can be loved. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should be loved. 
S. 1. Am-arer, I might, &c. be loved, 

2. Am-areris, or -arere, Thou might st, &c. be loved, 

3. Am-aretur, He might. &c. be loved; 
P. 1. Am-aremur, We might, &c. be loved, 

2. Am-aremmi, Ye might, &c. be loved, 

3. Am-arentur. They might, <fcc. be loved* 

Perfect, may have been loved. 

S. Am-atus sim, or fuerim, I may have been loved, 

Am-atus sis, or fueris, Thou mayst ham been loved, 

Am-atus sit, or fuerit, He may have been loved; 

P. Am-ati simus, or fuerimus, We may have been loved, 

Am-ati sitis, or fueritis, Ye may have been loved, 

Am-ati sint, or fuerint. They may have been loved. 

Pluperfect, might, could, ivould, or should have been loved. 

S. Am-atus essem, or fuissem, I might have been loved, 
Am-atus esses, or fuisses, Thou mightst have beenloved, 
Am-atus esset, or fuisset, He might, have been loved; 

P. Am-ati essemus or fuissemus, We might have been loved, 
Am-ati essetis, or fuissetis, Ye might have been loved, 
Am-ati essent, or fuissent. They might have been loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Sing. 2. Am-are,or ator, Be thou loved, 

3. Am-ator, Let him be loved; 

Plur. 2. Am-ammi, Be ye loved, 

3. Am-antor, Let them be loved. 



§69 



THE VERB. FIRST CONJUGATION. 



117 



INFINITIVE MOOD, 

Pres. Am-ari, To be loved. § 47. 11. 

Perf. Esse, or fuisse am-atus, To have been loved. 
Fut. Am-atum iri. To be about to be loved. 



PARTICIPLES, 

Loved) being loved, having 

been loved. 
To be loved, proper, or we- 

cessary to le loved. 

Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 
Indicative. Subjunctive. Imper. Infinitive. Part. 



Perf. Am-atus, -a, • 
Fut. Am-andus, -a 



um, 



-um. 



Pres. Amor, 


Amer, 




Amare. 


Amari. 




Imp. Amabar, 


Amarer : 










Perf. Amatus sum, 


Amatus 


sim, 




Esse or fuisse 


Amatus, 


Plup. Amatus eram, 


Amatus 


essem. 




amatus, 




Fut. Amabor, 








Amatum iri. 


Amandus. 


F. P. Amatus fuero. 












After the same manner inflect. 


Creor, creari, 


creatus, To be created. 


Vocor, vocari, 


vocatus, To be called. 


Domor, do] 


tnari, 


doi 


TLltuS, 


To bet 


anted. 



* 59. EXERCISES ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION, 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

1. Give the designation of the verb, — conjugate it, — give the tense, 
mood, voice, person, number, and translation of the following words, 
always following the same order; thus, — Amor. Verb, trans., first; 
Amo, amare, amavi, amatum, — found in the present ind. passive, first 
person sing. " I am loved." 

Amabatur, amantur, amatus est, amabitur, amabar, amare- 
tur, amentur, amatus sim, amatus fuero, amati fuerunt, amati 
essemus, amabammi, amaris, amatus esset, amati fuissent, 
amabuntur, amantor, amare, amatus esse, amatus, amatum 
iri, amandus, amemmi, amaremini, amantur, creatur, creare- 
tur, vocabitur, domantur, vocatus sum ; &c. 

2. Translate the following English words into Latin, giving the 
part of the verb used; thus, u Iam loved," Amor. — in the pres 
ind. pass, first person, sing. 

He is loved, they are loved, I have been loved, they were 



118 THE VERB FIRST CONJUGATION. § 59 

created, he had been called, they will be tamed, I might be 
loved, they may have been loved, to be loved, to have been 
called, I had been called, being called, they are tamed^ they 
have been tamed, he will be loved, they will have been 
loved, they may be called, I may be Called, he might have 
been created, they will be loved, &c. 

3. Translate the following sentences into English i according to the 
rules, § 57. 3. 

Dicit eum amari, illos vocatos esse, me vocatum iri, te 
amatum iri, me creari, eos domari, ilium amatum fuisse, nos 
domitos esse, nos domitum iri, illos amari, illos vocatum iri, 

Dixit eum amare, illos vocatos esse, me vocatum iri, te 
amatum iri, me creari, eos domari, ilium amatum fuisse, nos 
domitos esse, nos domitum iri, illos amari, illos vocatum iri, 
te amari. Dicet eum amari, &c. as in the preceding. 

4. Translate the following English into Latin, taking care that tht 
participle of the perfect infinitive be put i?i the same gender, number 
and case, as the accusative before it. 

He says that I am loved, that he was loved, that he will 
be called, that they were created, that we were tamed. He 
said that I was called, that we were created, that they had 
been created. He will say that I was loved, that I will be 
loved, that they will be called, that you are called, that he 
will be called. He said that they had been tamed. &c. 

Promiscuous Exercises on the Active and Passive 

Voice. 

5. Give the designation, &c. as directed^ No. 1. Amabo, 
amarem, amaretur, amatus sim, amant, vpeatur, crearentur, 
domantur, domitum iri, creari, amant, amabuntur, amarent, 
amavissent, amaverat, ametis, amatis, amabatis, amaveris, 
ama, amavisse, amandum, amatur, vocatum iri, vocatus es, 
vocati erant, vocatus esset, (dicit se, " he says that he,") 
amaturum esse, {dixit se, " he said that he,") amare, amari, 
(nos, that we,) vocatos esse, amanto, amabunt, amavistis, 
amavere, amaretis. 

Conjugate the following verbs like Amo \ viz. 
Accuso, / accuse^ Certo, I strive, Reparo, I repair } 

JEstlmo, I value, Coglto, i" think, Rogo, I ask, 

Ambulo, I walk, Festino, I hasten, • Servo, J keep, 

Curo, / care, Navigo, J sail, Vito, J shun. 



§ 60 THE VERB — SECOND CONJUGATION. 119 

§ 60. SECOND CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Pres. hid. Pres. Inf. Perf. Lid. Supine. 

M oneo, monere, monui, monitum, To advise* 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, I advise, do advise, am advising, § 44. L 

S. 1. Mon-eo, I advise, do advise, &c. 

2. Mon-es, Thou advisest, dost advise, &c. 

3. Mon-et, He advises, does advise, &c; 
P. 1. Mon-emus, We advise, do advise, &c. 

2. Mon-etis, Ye advise, do advise, &c. 

3. Mon-ent, They advise, do advise, &c. 

Imperfect, advised, did advise, was advising, § 44. II. 

S. 1. Mon-ebam, I advised, did advise, &c 

2. Mon-ebas, Thou advisedst, didst advise, &c. 

3. Mon-ebat, He advised, did advise, &c; 
P. 1. Mon-ebamus, We advised, did advise, &c. 

2. Mon-ebatis, Ye advised, did advise, &c. 

3. Mon-ebant, They advised, did advise, &c. 

Perfect, Def. have advised, Indef. advised; did advise, § 44. III. 

S. 1. Monu-i, I have advised, Sec. 

2. Monu-isti, Thou hast advised, &c. 

3. Monu-it, He has advised, &c ; 
P, 1. Monu-imus, We have advised, &c. 

2. Monu-istis, Ye have advised, &c. 

3. Monu-erunt, or -ere. They have advised, &c. 

Pluperfect, had advised, § 44. IV. 

S. 1. Monu-eram, I had advised, 

2. Monu-eras, Thou hadst advised^ 

3. Monu-erat, He had advised; 
P. 1. Monu-eramus, We had advised, 

2. Monu-eratis, Ye had advised, 

3. Monu-erant, They had advised. 



120 



THE VERB SECOND CONJUGATION. 



§60 



Future, shall, or will advise. 



S. 1. 
2. 
3. 

P. 1. 
2. 
3. 



Mon-ebo, 
Mon-ebis, 
Mon-ebit, 

Mon-ebimus, 

Mon-ebitis, 

Mon-ebunt, 



I shall, or will advise. 
Thou shalt, or wilt advise, 
He shall, or will advise ; 
We shall, or will advise, 
Ye shall, or will advise, 
They shall, or will advise. 



Future-perfect, shall, or will have advised, § 44. V. 

I shal^ or will have advised, 
Thou shalt, or wilt have advised, 
He shall, or will have advised; 
We shall, or ivill have advised, 
Ye shall, or will have advised, 
They shall, or will have advised. 



S. 1. Monu-ero, 
2. Monu-eris, 
Monu-erit, 

Monu-erimus, 

Monu-eritis, 

Monu-erint, 



3. 

, 1. 

2. 

3, 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may or can advise. § 45. I. 

S. 1. Mon-eam, I may, or can advise, 

2. Mon-eas, Thou may est, or canst advise^ 

3. Mon-eat, He may, or can advise; 
P. 1. Mon-eamus, We may, or can advise, 

2. Mon-eatis, Ye may, or can advise, 

3. Mon-eant, They may, or can advise. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should advise, § 45. II. 



S* 1. Mon-erem, 

2. Mon-eres, 

3. Mon-eret, 
P. 1. Mon-eremus, 

2. Mon-eretis, 

3. Mon-erent, 



S. 



I might, could, &c advise, 
Thou might st, &e. advise, 
He might, &c. advise ; 
We might, &c. advise, 
Ye might, &c. advise, 
They might, &c. advise. 

Perfect, way have advised, § 45. III. 

1. Monu-erim, I may have advised, 

2. Monu-eris, Thou may est have advised^ 

3. Monu-erit, He may have advised ; 

1. Monu-erimus, We may have advised, 

2. Monu-eritis, Ye may have advised, 

3 Monu-erint, They may have advised. 



§60 



THE VERB. SECOND CONJUGATION. 



121 



Pluperfect, might, 

S. 1. Monu-issem, 

2. Monu-isses, 

3. Monu-isset, 

P. 1. Monu-issemus, 

2. Monu-issetisj 

3. Monu-issent. 



could, would, or should have advised, 
§ 45. IV. 

I might, &c. have advised, 
Thou mightst, &c. have advised. 
He might, &c. have advised; 

We might, &c. have advised, 
Ye might, &c. have advised, 
They might, &c. have advised, 



2. Mon-e, or 

3. Mon-eto ? 

2. Mon-ete, 0?* -etote, 

3. Mon-ento. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

eto, Advise thou, § 47. 



11. 



Let him advise; 
Advise ye or you, 
Let them advise. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pres. 

Perf. 
Fut. 

F. PERF. 



Pres. 
Fut. 



Nom. 

Gen. 

Bat. 

Ace. 

AM. 



Mon-ere, 
Monu-isse, 
Esse momturus, 
Fuisse moniturus, 



To advise, § 47. 11. 

To have advised, 

To be about to advise, 

To have been about to advise. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Mon-ens 
Mon-ittirus. 



Mon-endum, 

Mon-endi, 

Mon-endo, 

Mon-endum, 

Mon-endo, 



Advising, 
About to advise. 

GERUNDS. 

Advising, 

Of advising, 

To advising, 

Advising, 

With, &c. advising. 



SUPINES, 

To advise, 

To be advised, or to advise, 

Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 

Indicative. Subjunctive. Irnper. Infinitive. 



Former, Mon-itum, 
Latter, Mon-itu. 



Pres. 

Imp. 

Perf. 

Plup. 

Fut. 

F.P. 



Moneo, 

Monebam 

Monui, 

Monueram, 

Monebo, 

Monuero 



Moneam, 
Monerem, 
Monuerim, 
Monuissem. 



Mone. 



11 



Monere, 

Monuisse, 

Esse moniturus, 
Fuisse moniturus. 



Part. 

Monens. 



Monlturu*. 



122 VERBS. SECOND CONJUGATION. § 61 

After the same manner inflect. 

Doc-eo, doc-ere^ docu-i, doc-tum, To teach. 

Jub-eo, jub-ere, juss-i, jus-sum, To order. 

Vid-eo, vid-ere, vid-i, vi-sum, To see. 



§ 61. EXERCISES ON THE ACTIVE VOICE. 

1. Give the designation, &c, as directed, § 57. 1. — Mone- 
bo, monuit, rnoneret, monuerit, mone, monuisse, monens, rao- 
nendum, monebat, monent, monento, monuisti, monuere, mo- 
nueratis, monuissent, — Docent, jubebat, jirsserat, videret, 
videat, videbit, docueris, doce, docturus,jussurus, visum, jus- 
su, docens, &c. 

2. Translate the following into "Latin, &c. as directed, 
§ 57. 2. — I have advised, I will advise, he may advise, I might 
advise, he will have advised, they advise, they had advised, 
they might have advised, thou hast advised, ye have advised, 
I did advise, he was advising. — He teaches, they taught; we 
had ordered, we would have ordered, I saw, I have seen, 
thou wilt see, he may see, they would have ordered, &c. 

3. Translate according to the rules, § 57. 3. 4,—Dicit, 
(he says) me monere, — nos monuisse, — illos monere, vos 
monittiros esse, me monittirum fuisse. — Dixit (he said) se, 
monere, — nos videre, — eum vidisse, — nos vistiros esse, me 
vistirum esse, — me visurum fuisse, — vos vidisse, se docere, 
nos doctlisse, vos docturos esse, illam, (that she) visuram 
esse, ilium docturum esse, &c. 

4. As directed, § 57. 3, 5. He says that I advised, he 
said that I advised, that I had advised, that I would advise, 
he says that I will advise, that I would have advised, he said 
that he (se) saw, had seen, would see, would have seen. I 
advise that you should order, he says that I am advising, that 
we will order, &c. 



§ 62. PASSIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part. 

Moneor, Moneri, Monitus, To be 



§' 


52 


VERBS.— 


-SECOND 


CONJUGATION. 






Present Tense, 


am 


advised^ § 44. I. 6. 


& 


L 


Mon-eor, 






I am advised^ 




2. 


Mon-eris, or -ere, 




Thou art advised, 




3. 


Mon-etur, 






He is advised ; 


p. 


1. 


Mon-emur, 






We are advised, 




2. 


Mon-emmi, 






Ye are advised) 




3. 


Mon-entur, 






They are advised. 






Imperfect, 


was 


advised, § 44, II. 4. 


& 


1. 


Mon-ebar, 






I was advised^ 




2. 


Mon-ebaris, or 


-ebare, 


Thou wast advised. 




3. 


Mon-ebatur, 






He was advised ; 


p, 


; L 


Mon-ebamur, 






We tvere advised) 




2. 


Mon-ebammi, 






Ye were advised) 




3. 


Mon-ebantur, 






They were advised. 



123 



Perfect, have been) was, am) § 44. III. 5. 

L Mon-itus # sum, or fui, I have been advised, &c. 

2. Mon-itus es, or fuisti, Thou hast been advised) &c. 

3. Mon-itus est, or fuit , He has been advised ; 

1. Mon-iti sumus, orf\nmus,We have been advised) 

2. Mon-iti estis, or fuistis, Ye have been advised) 

3. Mon-iti sunt, fuerunt,&c. They have been advised* 



-'luperfect, 



had been* 



I had been advised, 
Thou hadst been advised, 
He had been advised; 



S» Mon-itus eram, or fueram, 

Mon-itus eras, or fueras, 

Mon-itus erat, or fuerat , 
P. Mon-iti eramus, or fueramus, We had been advised, 

Mon-iti eratis, or fueratis, Ye had been advised, 

Mon-iti erant, or fuerant. They had been advised* 



1. Mon-ebor, 

2. Mon-eberis, or 

3. Mon-ebitur, 
, 1. Mon-ebimur, 

2. Mon-ebimini, 

3. Mon-ebuntur. 



Future, shall, or will be, 

I shall or toill be advised, 
•ebere, Thoushalt,or wilt be advised, 
He shall, or will be advised ; 
We shall) or will be advised, 
Ye shall, or will be advised, 
They shall, or will be advised. 



* See § 44. III. 6. Note. 



124 



THE VERB. SECOND CONJUGATION. 



Future Perfect, shall) or will have been. 



S. 1. Mon-itus fuero, 

2. Mon-itus fueris, 

3. Mon-itus fuerit 5 
P. 1. Mon-iti fuerimus, 

2. Mon-iti fueritis, 

3. Mon-iti fuerint, 



I shall have been advised, 
Thou wilt have been advised* 
He will have been advised; 
We shall have been advised ', 
Ye will have been advised. 
They will have been advised. 



S. 



S. 



P. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may or can be advised, 

1. Mon-ear, I may, or can be advised, 

2. Mon-earis, or -eare, Thou mayest, or canst be advised, 

3. Mon-eatur, He may, or can be advised; 

1. Mon-eamur, We may, or can be advised, 

2. Mon-eammi, Ye may, or can be advised, 

3. Mon-eantur, They may, cr can be advised. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should be. 



1. Mon-erer, 

2. Mon-ereris,or -erere, 

3. Mon-eretur , 

1. Mon-eremur, 

2. Mon-eremmi, 

3. Mon-erentur, 



I might, &c. be advised, 
Thou mightst, &c. be advised, 
He might, &c. be advised; 
We might, &c. be advised. 
Ye might, &c. be advised, 
They might, &c. be advised. 



Perfect, may have been advised. 

S, Monitus sim, or fuerim, i" may have been advised, 

Monitus sis, or fueris, 

Monitus sit, or fuerit 3 
P, Moniti simus, or fuerimus, 

Moniti sitis, or fueritis, 

Moniti sint, or fuerint, 



Thou may est have been advised, 
He may have been advised; 
We may have been advised, 
Ye may have been advised. 
They may have been advised. 



Pluperfect, might, could, ivould, or should have been, 

Monitus essem, or fuissem, I might &c have been advised, 
Monitus esses, or fuisses, Thoumightst have been advised, 
Monitus esset, or fuisset , He might have been advised; 
Moniti essemus, or fuissemus, We might have been advised, 
Moniti essetis, or fuissetis, Ye might have been advised, 
Moniti essent, or fuissent, They might have been advised. 



§63 



THE VERB. SECOND CONJUGATION. 



125 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



2. Mon-ere, or -etor, 

3. Mon-etor, 

2. Mon-emmi, 

3. Mon-entor. 



Be thou advised. 
Let him be advised; 
Be ye advised , 
Let them be advised. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pres. Mon-eri? 

Perf. Esse, or fuisse monitus, 

Fut. Mon-itum iri 



To be advised^ § 47. 11, 
To have been advised. 
To be about to be advised. 



Perf. Mon-itus,-a,-um, 
Fut. Mon-endus, -a,-um, 



PARTICIPLES. 

advised^ being advised, or 



having been advised, 
to be advised, proper, or ne- 
cessary to be advised* 



Synofsis of the Moods and Tenses. 

Indicative. Subjunctive. Irnper. Infinitive. 



Pres. 

Imp. 

Perf. 

Plup. 

Fut. 

F.P. 



Moneor, 
Monsbar, 
Monltus sum, 
Monltus eram 
Monebor, 
Monltus fuero 



Monear, 


Monere. 


Monerer, 




Monltus sim, 




Monltus essem. 





Moneri, 

Esse, or fu- 
isse monltus, 
Monltum iri. 



Part 

Monltus, 
Monendus 



After the same manner inflect, 

Doceor, doceri, doctus, To be taught* 

Jubeor, juberi, jussus, To be ordered. 

Videor, videri, visus, To be seen. 



$ 63. EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

1. Give the designation) &c. as directed, § 59. 1. Mone- 
or, monetur, monebatur, monebitur, monitus est, moniti es- 
tis, moneamur, moneretur, monitus fuero, monere, moneri, 
monitus. monitus esse, monendus. Videretur, visus, visum 
iri, docerentur, doceantur, docemini, doceamini, jubebitur, 
jussi fuerunt,.juberentur, jubetor, &c. 

11* 



126 THE VERB. SECOND CONJUGATION. § 63 

2. Translate thefolloioing into Latin, as directed § 59.2. 
I was advised, he has been advised, — he may be advised, we 
will be advised, we were advised, I am advised, they might 
have been advised. Be ye advised, to be about to be advis- 
ed, to be advised, he may have been seen, — they should be 
ordered, we will be seen, they will be taught, having been 
taught, necessary to be taught, let them be taught ; they have 
been ordered, we might have been ordered, to be about to be 
ordered, being ordered, they may have been ordered, &c. 

Promiscuous Exercises on the Second Conjugation. 

3. Give the designation, &c. as directed, § 57. 1 ; § 59. 1. 
Monebam, monuerat, monuerit, monebunt, moneam, mone, 
monebar, monitus es, monuit, moneri, doctus sum, docear, 
docerer, docebitur, docento, docentor, docentur, jubet, jus- 
serunt, jusserint, jubebo, juberentur, jussus esse, jube, vi- 
deo, vident, videretur, vide, vidistis, videratis, viderent, vi- 
dero, videndum, videns, visurus, vidisse, visum iri, videri, 
monebuntur, moneantur, viderentur, jusserim, jubebam, ju- 
berer, videntur, docuerunt, doce, docens. 

4. Translate the following into Latin, as directed, § 57. 2. 
I am advised, he advises, they will advise, ye have advised, 
they will have advised, he will be advised, he is taught, he 
has taught, they will teach, I will see, they may see, they 
are seen, he has been seen, to order, to have been ordered, 
ordering, about to order, to have seen, I might see, I might 
have been seen, they will not (non) see, he will not see, I 
do not advise, he is teaching, he is not teaching, he will not 
order, I will order, &c. 

5. As directed, § 57. 3 and 4. Dicit se monere, — nos monu- 
isse, — eum moniturum esse, — vos videre, — eum visum iri ; 
Dixit se monere, — nos monuisse, — eum moniturum esse, 
vos videre, eum visum iri. Dicet se monere, &c. vos monu- 
isse, homines monituros esse, feminam monituram esse, vos 
jubere. N 

6. As directed, § 57. 5. He says that he advises, — that 
he will advise, — that we have "advised. He said that I ad- 
vised, that he had advised, that they would have advised, that 
we will order, would have ordered, would have been order- 
ed, was taught, had been taught, would have been taught, &c. 



§ 64 THE VERB. THIRD CONJUGATION. 127 

§ 64. THIRD CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Supine. 
Reg-o, reg-ere, rex-i, rect-um, To rule. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, rule, do rule, am ruling, 9 44. I. 

♦S. 1. Reg-o, I rule, do rule, am ruling, 

2. Reg-is,* Thou rulest, dost rule, art rulings 

3. Reg-it j He rules, does rule, is ruling ; 
P. 1. Reg-imus, We rule, do rule, are ruling, 

2. Reg-itis, Ye rule, do rule, are ruling, 

3. Reg-unt, Tkey rule, do rule, are ruling. 

Imperfect, ruled, did rule, was ruling, § 44. II. 

S. 1. Reg-ebam, I ruled, did rule, ivas ruling, 

2. Reg-ebas, Thou ruledst, didst rule, wast ruling , 

3. Reg-ebat, He ruled, did rule, ivas ruling ; 
P. 1. Reg-ebamus, We rxded, did rule, were ruling, 

2. Reg-ebatis, Ye ruled, did rule, were ruling, 

3. Reg-ebant, They ruled, did rule, were ruling. 

Perfect, Def. have ruled, Indef. ruled, did rule, § 44. III. 

S. 1. Rex-i, I have ruled, ruled, did rule, 

2. Rex-isti % Thou hast ruled, ruledst, didst rule, 

3. Rex-it, He has ruled, ruled, did rule ; 
P. 1. Rex-imus, We have ruled, ruled, did rule, 

2. Rex-istis, Ye have ruled, ruled, did rule, 

3. Rex-erimt, or -ere, They have ruled, ruled, did rule. 

Pluperfect, had ruled. § 44. IV. 

S. 1. Rex-eram, I had ruled, 

2. Rex- eras, Thou hadst ruled, 

3. Rex-erat, He had ruled ; 
P. 1. Rex-eramus, We had ruled, 

2. Rex-eratis, Ye had ruled, 

3. Rex- er ant, They had ruled. 

• C and g are hard before a, o, u; and soft like 5 andj before 
and i. Soft g is here marked in Italics, and sounds like /. 



128 THE VERB. THIRD CONJUGATION. § 64 

Future, shall, or will rule, § 44. V. 

S. 1. Reg-am, I shall, or will rule, 

2. Re^-es, Thou shalt, or wilt rule, 

3. Re^-ety He shall, or will rule ; 
P. 1. Reg-- emus, We shall, or will rule, 

2. Re^-etis, Ye shall, or will rule, 

3. Re^-ent, They shall, or will rule. 

Future-perfect, shall, or will have ruled, § 44. VI. 

S. 1. Rex-ero, I shall, or vjill have ruled, 

2. Rex-eris, T^ow s^aZ£, or wilt have ruled, 

3. Rex-erit, He shall, or z^7Z have ruled; 
P. 1. Rex-erimus, We shall, or wz'ZZ Aave ruled, 

2. Rex-eritis, Ye sAaZZ, or will have ruled, 

3. Rex-erint, They shall, or 2^z7Z have ruled* 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, may, or can rule, § 45. 1. 

S. 1. Reg-am, I may, or can rule, 

2. Reg-as, TAow may est, or ca/25^ ?*w?e, 

3. Re^-at, He may, or c#tz rule ; 
P. 1. Reg-amus, We may, or ca?z r^/e, 

2. Reg-atis, Ye ??z<2?/, or can rule, 

3. Reg- ant, TAey may, or c#?i rw?e. 

Imperfect might, could, would, or should rule, § 45. II. 

S. 1. Reg--erem, I might, ho* rule, 

2. Reg--eres, Thou mightst, &c. rwZe, 

3. Reg-eret, He might, &c. n*Ze; 
P. 1. Reg-- er emus, IFe might, &c. rw£e, 

2. Reg-eretis, Ye might, &c. r?^Ze, 

3. Re^-erent, They might, &c. rwZc. 

Perfect, may have ruled, § 45. III. 

S. 1. Rex-erim, I may have ruled, 

2. Rex-eris, TAow may est have ruled, 

3. Rex-erit, .He way have ruled; 
P. 1. Rex-erimus, We may have ruled, 

2. Rex-eritis, Ye #202/ Aaue ruled, 

3. Rex-erint, TAey ??wzy Aowe ruled. 



§64 



THE VERB. THIRD CONJUGATION. 



129 



Pluperfect, mighty could, would, or should have ruled 
$ 45. IV. 



S. 1. Rex-issem, 

2. Rex-isses, 

3. Rex-isset, 
P. 1. Rex-issemus, 

2. Rex-issetis, 

3. Rex-issent, 



I might, &c. have ruled 
Thou might st, &c. have ruled, 
He might, &c. have ruled; 
We might, &c. have ruled, 
Ye might, &c. have ruled. 
They might, &c. have ruled. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD, § 42. 

2. Reg-e, or -Ito, Rule thou, 

3. Reg-ito, Let him rule; 

2. Reg-ite,or-itote, Rule ye, 

3. Reg-unto, Let them rule. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pres. 
Perf. 

FUT. 

F.Perf. 



Pres. 

FUT. 



Reg- ere, 
Rex-isse, 
Esse recturus, 
Fuisse recturus, 



To rule, $ 47. 11. 

To have ruled, 

To be about to rule, 

To have been about to rule. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Reg-ens, Ruling, 

Rect-urus, -a, -um, About to rule. 



Nom. 

Gen. 

Bat. 

Ace. 

AM. 



Reg-endum, 

Reg-endi, 

Reg-endo, 

Reg-endum, 

Reg-endo, 



GERUNDS. 
Ruling, 
Of ruling, 
To ruling, 
Ruling, 
With, &c. ruling. 



SUPINES. 
Former, Rect-um, To rule, 

Latter, Rect-u, To be ?~uled, or to rule. 

Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 



Pres. 

Imp. 
Perf. 
Plup. 
Fut. 



Indicative. 

Rego, 

Regebam, 

Rexi, 

Rexeram, 

Regam, 



F.perf. Rexero. 



Subj. 
Regam, 
Regerem, 
Rexerim, 
Rexissem. 



Imper. 
Rege. 



Infinitive. 
Regere, 

Rexisse, 

jEsse recturus, 
iFuisse recturus. 



Participlet. 
Regens, 



Recturus. 



130 



THE VERB. THIRD CONJUGATION. 



§64 



After the same manner inflect. 

Lego, legere, legi, lectum, To read. 

Scribo, seribere, scripsi, scriptum, To write. 

Caedo, casdere, cecidi, caesum, To slay. 



EXAMPLE OF VERBS IN -10. ACTIVE VOICE j 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Supine. 
capere, cepi, captum, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Capio, 



To take. 



Singular. 
Pres. Cap-io, -is, 

Imp. Capi-ebam, -ebas, 



Plural. 



-it; -imus, 
-ebat; -ebamus, 



-mnt. 
, -ebant. 



Perf. Cep-i, 

Plup. Cep-eram, 
Fut. Capi-am, 
F.P. Cep-ero, 



-isti, -it; -imus, 



-eras, 

-es, 

-eris, 



-erat; 
-erit; 



-eramus, 

-emus, 

-erimus, 



-itis, 

-ebatis, 

. .. ( -erunto? 
-istis, < 

' ( -ere. 

-eratis, -erant. 

-etis, -ent. 

-eritis, -erint. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Pres. Capi-am, -as, -at, 
Imp. Cap-erem, -eres, -eret, 
Perf. Cep-erim, -eris, -erit, 
Plup. Cep-issem, -isses, -isset, 



-amus, -atis, -ant. 

-eremus, -eretis, -erent. 

-erimus, -eritis, -erint. 

-issemus. -issetis. -issent. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Cap-e,or -lto, -ito ; -ite,or -ltote, -mnto. 



INFINITIVE. 



Present, Cap- ere. 
Perfect, Cep-isse. 
Future, Esse capttirus. 
F. Perfect, Fuisse capttirus. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Present, Capiens. 
Future, Capttirus -a,-um. 



GERUNDS. 



N. Capi-endum, 
G. Capi-endi, &c. 

So also Rapio, rap ere, 
Fugio, fugere, 



SUPINES. 

Former, Captum, 
Latter, Captu. 

rapui, raptum, To seize. 
fugi. fugitum, Toflee. 



§65 ? 66 THE VERB — THIRD CONJUGATION. 131 

$ 65. EXERCISES ON THE ACTIVE VOICE. 

Give the designation. Sec. as directed, § 57. 1. — Regebam, 
rexisti, rexeram, regam, regerem, rexero, rexisset, rege, rex- 
isse, regens. Scribit, scribebat, scripsit, scribemus, seriba- 
mus, legunt, legeret, leget, lege, legerunt, legerant. Capi- 
unt, capiebat, capiunto, caperem, cepit, ceperim, ceperam, 
cepissem,capit, capere, capiendum, &c. 

2. Translate the folloiving into Lathi, as directed, § 57. 
2. — He rules, we are ruling, he has ruled, we will rule, 
they will have ruled, ye might rule, they may rule, we will 
rule, they were ruling, he had ruled, they might have ruled. 
He has read, they will read, we shall read, to have read, to 
have written, to write, writing, write thou, let them write 

3. Translate according to the Rules, § 57. 3. 4. (Dicit 
he says,) me regere, me scribere, se rexisse, nos recturos 
esse, ilium scripsisse, me scripturum fuisse, vos lecturos 
esse, nos capi, vos cepisse, vos capturos esse, vos captu- 
ros fuisse, (Dicit, he said, ) me regere, me rexisse, me rec- 
turum esse, &c. 

4. As directed, §57.4 — 5. He says that I rule, that he 
ruled, that we write, that they will write, that he is about 
to write. He writes that he rules, that you are reading, that 
you will write. He said that he was writing, that you had 
written, that we would write, would have written. He will 
say that I am ruling, was ruling, will rule, &c. 



§ 66 PASSIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part. 
Reg-or, R e #-i> Rectus, To be ruled* 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, am ruled, § 44. I. 6. 

1. Reg-or, I am ruled, 

2. Reg-eris, or -ere, Thou art ruled, 

3. Re^-itur, He is ruled ; 

1. Reg-imur, We are ruled, 

2. Reg-immi, Ye are ruled, 

3. Reg-untur, They are ruled. 



132 THE VERB THIRD CONJUGATION. § 66 

Imperfect, %aas ruled, § 44. II. 4. 

S. 1. Reg--ebar, 1 10 as ruled, 

2. Reg--ebaris, or -ebare, Thou wast ruled, 

3. Reg-ebatur, He was ruled ; 
P. 1. Reg--ebamur, We were ruled, 

2. Reg--ebamini, Ye were ruled, 

3. Reg-ebantur. They were ruled. 

Perfect, have been ruled, was ruled, am ruled, § 44. III. 5. 

S. 1. Rectus sum, or fui, I have been ruled, 

2. Rectus es, or fuisti, Thou hast been ruled, 

3. Rectus est, or fuit, He has been ruled; 
P. 1. Recti sumus, or fuimus, We have been ruled, 

2. Recti estis, or fuistis, Ye have been ruled, 

3. Recti sunt, fuerunt, or fuere, They have been ruled. 

Pluperfect, had been ruled. 

S. 1. Rectus eram, or fueram, I had been ruled, 

2. Rectus eras, or fueras, Thou hadst been ruled, 

3. Rectus erat, or fuerat, He had been ruled ; 
P. 1. Recti eramus, or fueramus, We had been ruled, 

2. Recti eratis, or fueratis, Ye had been ruled, 

3. Recti erant, or fuerant, They had been ruled. 

Future, shall, or will be ruled. 

S. 1. Reg-ar, I shall, or ivill be ruled, 

2. Reg-eris, or -ere, Thou shall, or wilt be ruled, 

3. Reo-etur, He shall, or will, be ruled ; 
P. 1. Re^-emur, We shall, or will be ruled, 

2. Reg-emmi, Ye shall, or will be ruled, 

3. Re g--entur, They shall, or will be ruled. 

Future-perfect, shall, ox will have been ruled. 

S. 1. Rectus fuero, I shall, or ivill have been ruled, 

2. Rectus fueris, Thou shalt, or wilt have been ruled, 

3. Rectus fuerit, He shall, or will have been ruled ; 
P. 1. Recti fuerimus, We shall, or will have been ruled, 

2. Recti fueritis, Ye shall, or will have been ruled, 

1 Recti fuerint, They shall, or will have been ruled. 



S. 1. 


Reg-ar, 


2. 


Reg-aris, or -are, 


3. 


Reg-atur, 


P. 1. 


Reg-amur, 


2. 


Reg-amini, 


3. 


Reg-antur, 




Imperfect, might, c 


S. 1. 


Reg-erer, 


2. 


Reg-ereris, o?*-erere, 


3. 


Reg-eretur, 


P. 1. 


Reg-eremur, 


2. 


Reg-eremmi, 


3. 


Reg-erentur, 



§ 66 THE VERB. THIRD CONJUGATION. 133 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present tense, may or can be ruled. 

I may, or can be ruled, 
Thou mayest, or canst be ruled, 
He may, or can be ruled ; 
We may, or can be ruled, 
Ye may, or can be ruled, 
They may, or can be ruled. 

uld, would, or should be. 
I might, &c. be ruled, 
Thou might st, &c. be ruled, 
He might, &c. be ruled; 
We might, &c. be ruled. 
Ye might, &c. be ruled, 
They might, &c. be ruled. 
Perfect, may have been. 
S. 1. Rectus sim, or fuerim, I may have been ruled, 

2. Rectus sis, or fueris, Thou may est have been ruled. 

3. Rectus sit, or fuerit, He may have been ruled ; 
P. 1. Recti simus, orfuerimus, We may have been ruled, 

2. Recti sitis, or fueritis, Ye may have been ruled, 

3. Recti sint, or fuerint, They may have been ruled. 
Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have been. 

Rectus es cm. or fuisscm, I might &c. have been ruled, 

Rectus esses, or fuisses, Thou mightst have been ruled^ 

Rectus esset, or fuisset, He might have been ruled ; 

Recti essemus,or fuissemus, We might have been ruled, 

Recti essetis, or fuissetis, Ye might have been ruled, 

Recti essent, or fuissent, They might have been ruled. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

S. 2. Reg- ere, or -ltor, Be thou ruled, 

3. Reg- ltor, Let him be ruled- 

P. 2. Reg-immi, Be ye ruled. 

3. Reg-untor, Let them be ruled. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Reg-i, To be ruled, § 47. 11. 

Perf. Esse, or fuisse rectus, To have been ruled, 
Fut. Rectum iri, To be about to be ruled. 

12 



134 



THE VERB. THIRD CONJUGATION. 



PARTICIPLES. 



§66 



_ „ ( Ruled, being ruled, having been 

Perf. Rectus, -a, -urn, j ^^ * * 

_. .~ , ( To be ruled, proper, or necessary to 

Fut. Regendus,-a,-um, j he ruU l " 



Synopsis of the moods and Tenses, 



Indicative. 
Pres. Regor, 
Imp. Regebar, 
Perf. Rectus sum, 
Plup. Rectus eram, 
Fut. Regar, 
F.P. Rectus fuero 



Subjunctive. 
Regar, 
Regerer, 
Rectus sim, 
Rectus essem. 



I?nper. 
Regere 



Infinitive. 
Regi, 

Esse or fuisse 

rectus, 
Rectum iri 



Participles. 

Rectus, 
Regendus 



Legor, 

Scribor, 

Caedor, 



After the same manner inflect, 

legi, lectus, To be read. 

scribi, scriptus, To be written. 

caedi, caesus, To be slain. 



EXAMPLE OF VERBS IN -10— PASSIVE VOICE, 
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part. 

Capior, Capi, Captus, To betaken . 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Pres. Cap-ior, 



< -eris,< 
I -ere, 



3 

-Itur; 



1 
-Irnur 



2 

-imini, 



3 

-iuntur. 



-ebaris, or 



Imp. Capi-ebar, < s^t/re' °" " e ^ atur J -ebamur, -ebamini, -ebantur. 

Perf. Captus sum, or fui, captus es, or fuisti, &c. 

Plup. Captus eram, or fueram, captus eras, or fueras, &c. 

Fut. Capi-ar, < - ' -etur; -emur, -emlni, 

F. P. Captus fuero, captus fueris, captus fuerit, &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
or 



-atur, -amur, 



-a mini, 



-entur. 

■antur. 
-erentur 



Pres. Capi-ar, J *J* 

Imp. Cap-erer, < "-f- -eretur, -eremur, -eremlni 

' £ -erere, 

Perf. Captus sim, or fuerim, captus sis, or fueris, &c. 
Plup. Captus essem, or fuissem, captus esses, or fuisses, &c. 
IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
2 3 2 3 

Pres* Cap-ere or -Ttor, -itor* -imini, -iuntor 



§ 67 THE VERB. THIRD CONJUGATION. 135 

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Cap-i. Perf. Captus,-a, -um. 

Perf. Esse, or fuisse captus. Fut. Capiendus, -a, -um. 
Fut. Captum iri. 

So also Rapior, rapi, raptus, To be seized. 



§ 67. EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. • 

1. Give the designation, &c. as directed, § 59. 1. — Regi- 
tur, regetur, regimmi, rectus est, rectus fuerit, regerer, re- 
gar, regor, regere, reguntor, rectus, rectum iri, rectus esse, 
regi, regebatur, reguntur, regentur, rectus sim, rectus esset, 
Capiar, capiuntur, capiuntor, capiebatur, captus sum, &c. 

2. Translate the following into Latin, as directed, § 59. 
2,— He is ruled, I was ruled, they will be ruled, they have 
been ruled, we might be ruled, he might have been ruled, 
they were ruled, ye had been ruled, to have been ruled, be- 
ing ruled, to be ruled, let them be ruled. — They are taken, 
they will be taken, let them be taken, they have been taken, 
he will be taken, they might be taken, be thou taken, &c. 

Promiscuous Exercises on the Third Conjugation. 

3. Give the designation, &c. as directed, § 57. 1; or $ 59. 
1. — Regebat, rexerunt, rexerat, reget, rexit, rexerint, legit, 
legit, leget, legat, legerit, scripserit, scripsisse, scribitur, 
scriptus est, scriptum iri, legi, legere, legisse, rexisse, lectus 
esse, legitor, rectus, regens, scripttirus, scribendus, lectu, 
scribere, scripsere, Jegere, legere, legimmi, capiunt, capiun- 
tor, captus sum, capitur, capitor, ceperunt, ceperint, scrip- 
turn esse, rexi. regi, regam, regeret, &c. 

4. Translate the folloiving into Latin, as directed, § 57. 
2, or § 59. 2. — I rule, I am ruled, he rules, they are ruled, 
they have ruled, they have been ruled, they will rule, he 
might rule, they might be ruled, we will read, he may have 
been taken, they will have been ruled, he might have writ- 
ten, to be ruled, rule thou, let him be ruled, they were 
writing, they might write, to have written, to have read, to 
have ruled, to have taken, they had written, had ruled, had 
read, had taken. 



136 THE VERB. — FOURTH CONJUGATION. § 68 

§ 68. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Supine. 

Audio, audire," audivi, auditum, To hear. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, hear, do hear, am hearings § 44. I. 

S. 1. Aud-io, I hear, do hear, am hearing, 

2. Aud-is, Thou hearest, dost hear, art hearings 

3. Aud-it, He hears, does hear, is hearing; 
P. 1. Aud-imus, We hear, do hear, are hearing, 

2. Aud-itis, Ye hear, do hear, are hearing, 

3. Aud-iunt, They hear, do hear, are hearing. 

Imperfect, heard, did hear, was hearing, § 44. II. 

S. 1. Audi-ebam, I heard, did hear, was hearing, 

2. Audi-ebas, Thou heardst, didst hear, wast hearing , 

3. Audi-ebat, He heard, did heaf, was hearing: 
P. 1. Audi-ebamus, We heard, did hear, were hearing 

2. Audi-ebatis, Ye heard, did hear, were hearing, 

3. Audi-ebant, They heard, did hear, were hearing. 

Perfect, Def. have hear d ; Indef. heard, did hear, §44.111. 

S . Audiv-i, I have heard, heard, did hear, 

Audiv-isti, Thou hast heard, heardst, didst hear $ 

Audiv-it, He has heard, heard, did hear ; 

P. Audiv-imus, We have heard, heard, did hear, 

Audiv-istis, Ye have heard, heard, did hear, 

Audiv-erunt, or -ere. They have heard, heard, did hear* 

Pluperfect, had heard, § 44. IV. 

S. 1. Audiv-eram, I had heard, 

2. Audiv-eras, Thou hadst heard % 

3. Audiv-erat, He had heard; 
P. 1. Audiv-eramus, We had heard, 

2. Audiv-eratis, Ye had heard, 

3. Audiv-erant, They had heard. 



§ 68 THE VERB. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 137 

Future, shall , or will hear, § 44. V. 

S. 1. Audi-am, I shall, or will hear. 

2. Audi-es, Thou shalt, or wilt hear, 

3. Audi-et, He shall, or will hear ; 
P. 1. Audi-emus, We shall, or will hear, 

2. Audi-etis, Ye shall, or will hear, 

3. Audi-ent, They shall, or will hear. 

Future-perfect, shall, or will have heard, § 44, VI, 

S. 1. Audiv-ero, I shall, or wrcZZ Aare heard, 

2. Audiv-eris, 7\foz£ s^#Z£, or ^z'Z^ Aaz;e heard, 

3. Audiv-erit, ife s^aZZ, or ivill have heard; 
P. 1. Audiv-erimus, We shall, or vrill have heard, 

2. Audiv-eritis, Ye shall, or ?w7Z Aat?e heard, 

3. Audiv-erint, TAe?/ sAaZZ, or will have heard. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
Present Tense, may, or can hear, § 45. I. 

S. 1. Audi-am, I may, or can hear, 

2. Audi-as, Thou mayest, or canst hear, 

3. Audi-at , He may, or can hear; 
P. ] . Audi-amus, We may, or can hear, 

2. Audi-atis, Ye may, or can hear, 

3. Audi-ant, They may or catz Aear. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should, § 45. II. 

S. 1. Aud-irem, I might, &c. Aear, 

2. Aud-ires, TAow mightst, &c. Aear, 

3. Aud-Iret, He might, &c. Aear; 
P. 1. Aud-iremus, TFe might, &c.hear, 

2. Aud-iretis, Ye might, &c. Ae<zr, 

3. Aud-Irent, TAe?/ might, &c. Aear. 





Perfect, 


may have heard, § 45. III. 


1. 


Audiv-erim, 


I may have heard, 


2. 


Audiv-eris, 


Thou mayst have heard % 


3. 


Audiverit, 


He may have heard; 


1. 


Audiv-erimus, 


We may have heard, 


2. 


Audlv-eritis, 


Ye may have heard, 


3. 


Audiv-erint, 


They may have heard. 
12* 



138 



THE VERB. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



§ 



Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should hear, § 45. IV 

s. 



1. Audiv-issem, 

2. Audlv-isses, 

3. Audiv-isset, 

1. Audiv-issemus, 

2. Audrv-issetis, 

3. Audiv-issent, 



I might, &c. have heard, 
Thou mights 1, &c. have heard t 
He might, &c. have heard ; 
We might, &c. have heard, 
Ye might, &c. have heard. 
They might, &c have heard. 



Aud-I, or 
Aud-ito, 



2. 
3, 

2. Aud-ite, or 

3. Aud-iunto, 



IMPERATIVE MOOD, § 42. 
-Ito, Hear thou, 



Let him hear; 
-Itote, Hear ye, or you, 
Let them hear. 



Pres. 
Perf. 
Fut. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Aud-ire, To hear, § 47. 11. 



Audlv-isse, 
Esse auditurus, 



F. perf. Fuisse auditurus, 



To have heard, 

To be about to hear, 

To have been about to hear* 



PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Aud-iens, 

Fut. Aud-iturus,-a,-um, 

GERUNDS 

Norn. Aud-iendum, 
Gen. Aud-iendi, 
Dat. Aud-iendo, 
Ace. Aud-iendum, 
All. Aud-iendo, 



Hearing, 
About to hear. 



Pres. 
Imp. 
Perf. 
Plv . 
Ft 



Hearing, 

Of hearing, 

To hearing, 

Hearing, 

With, &c. hearing. 



SUPINES. 
Former, Audit-um, To hear. 

Latter, Audit-u, To be heard, or to hear. 



Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 



Indicative. 
Audio, 
Audiebam, 
Audivi, 
Audlveram, 
Audiam, 



Subjunctive. 

Audiam, 

Audirem, 

Audrverim, 

Audivissem. 



F . perf. Audi vero . 



Imp. 
Audi. 



Infinitive. 
Audire, 

Audivisse, 

Esse auditurus. 
Fuisse auditurus, 



Participles 

Audiens. 



Auditurus. 



§69 



THE VEKB. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



139 



Munio, 
Venio, 
Vincio, 



After the same manner inflect. 



munire, 
Venire, 
Vincire, 



muni vi, 

veni, 

vinxi, 



munitum, 

ventum, 

vinctum, 



To fortify. 
To come. 
To bind. 



$ 69. EXERCISES ON THE ACTIVE VOICE. 

1. Give the designation, &c. as directed, § 57. 1. — Audio, 
audiunt, audivit, audiet, audirent, audi, audivisse, audive- 
rant, audivSrunt, muniant, munient, muniverunt, muniverint, 
muniunto, muniunt, venerat, venisset, vinxisti, vinxisse, vin- 
ciet, vincirent, vinciebam, veniens, ventum, venturus, &c. 

2. Translate the following into Latin, &c. as directed, 
§ 57. 2. I have heard, he 'heard, they were hearing, we will 
hear, you might hear, they could have heard, hear thou, let 
them hear, to have heard, hearing, to be about to hear, he 
shall have come, they will bind, let them bind, to have bound, 
binding, of binding, with binding, he had come, he had bound, 
they will fortify, I was hearing, they would have heard, the 
men (homines) may have heard, about to hear, of hearing, 
they had bound — may have bound — will have bound ; bind 
ye, I have bound, to bind, to have bound, about to bind, bind- 
ing, to have been about to fortify, to have fortified, &c. 

3. Translate according to the rule, § 57. 3. 4. Dicit (he 
says,) me audire, vos audire, eos audivisse, hominem audl- 
turum esse, hominem audlturum fuisse, homines audlturos 
esse, feminam f. (that the ivoman) venturam esse, — ventiiram 
fuisse, Dixit (he said,) se (that he himself) venturum esse 5 
eum (that he, viz. some other person, not himself,) venturum 
fuisse, nos venturos esse, &c. 

4. As directed, § 57. 3. 5. He says that I hear, that we 
hear, that they have heard, that they will hear, that he (him- 
self) will come, that he (some other) will come, that the men 
will come, that the women will come, he said that he (him- 
self) came, that he (another) came, that they had come, that 
they would come, that they would have come, that the women 
would come, — would have come, &c. He will say that I 
hear, that I heard, that I will hear. 



140 



THE VERB. 



-FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



§70 



$ 70. PASSIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf Part. 

Audior, audiri, auditus. To be heard. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, am heard, § 44. I. 6. 



s. 


l. 


Aud-ior, 




lam heard, 




2. 


Aud-iris, or -ire, 




Thou art heard. 




3. 


Aud-itur, 




He is heard; 


p, 


1. 


Aud-imur, 




We are heard, 




2. 


Aud-immi, 




Ye are heard, 




3. 


Aud-iuntur, 




They are heard. 






Imperpect, 


was heard 


1, §44. II. 4. 


k 


1. 


Audi-ebar, 




I was heard, 




2. 


Audi-ebar is, or -i 


jbare, 


Thou wast heard, 




3. 


Audi-ebatur, 




He was heard; 


p. 


. 1. 


Audi-ebamur, 




Weivere heard, 




2. 


Audi-ebammi, 




Ye ivere heard, 




3. 


Audi-ebantur, 




They were heard. 



Perfect, have been heard, was heard, am heard, § 44. III. 5 



1. Auditus* sum, or fui, 

2. Anditus es, or fuisti, 

3. Auditus est, or fuit, 

1. Auditi sumus, orfuimus, 

2. Auditi estis, or fuistis, 



I have been heard, 
Thou hast been heard, 
He has been heard ; 
We have been heard, 
Ye have been heard, 



3* Auditi sunt, fuerunt, or fuere, They have been heard. 

Pluperfect, had been heard. 

S. 1. Auditus* eram, or fueram, I had been heard, 

2. Auditus eras, or fueras, Thou hadst been heard) 

3. Auditus erat, or fuerat, He had been heard ; 
P. 1. Auditi eramus, or fueramus, We had been heard, 

2. Auditi eratis, or fueratis, Ye had been heard, 

3. Auditi erant, or fuerant, They had been heard. 



See § 44. III. 6. Note. 



§70 



THE VERB.— FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



141 



Future, shall, or will be heard. 



S» 1. Audi-ar, 

2. Audi-eris, or *ere, 

3. Audi-etur, 
P. 1. Audi-emur, 

2. Audi-gmini, 

3. Audi-entur, 

Future-perfect, 

S>. 1. Auditus fuero, 

2. Auditus fueris, 

3. Auditus fuerit, 
P. 1. Auditi fuerimusj 

2. Auditi fueritis, 

3. Auditi fuerint. 



I shall) or will be heard, 
Thou shah, or wilt be hedrd 9 
He shall) or will be heard; 
We shall, or will be heard, 
Ye shall, or will be heard, 
They shall, or will be heard* 

shall, or will have been heard. 

I shall, or will have been heard, 
Thou shalt, or wilt have been heard, 
He shall, or will have been heard; 
We shall, or will have been heard, 
Ye shall, or will have been heard, 
They shall, or will have been heard* 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may, or can be heard. 



s. 


1. Audi-ar, 

2. Audi-aris or -are 

3. Audi-atur, 


I may^ or can be heard, 
, Thou may est, or canst be heard, 
He may, or can be heard ; 


p. 


, 1. Audi-amur, 

2. Audi-amini, 

3. Audi-ant ur, 


We may, or can be heard, 
Ye may, or can be heard, 
They may, or can be heard. 




Imperfect, might, 


could, would, or should be heard* 


s. 


1. Aud-irer, I might, &c. be heard, 

2. Aud-ireris, or -Trere, Thou mightst, &c. be heard, 

3. Aud-iretur, He might, &c. be heard, 


p 


. 1. Aud-iremur, 

2. Aud-iremini, 

3. Aud-lrentur, 


We might, &c. be heard, 
Ye might, &c. be heard, 
They might, &c. be heard. 



Perfect, may have been heard. 

, 1. Auditus sim, or fuerim, I may have been heard, 

2. Auditus sis, or fueris, Thou mayest have been heard, 

3. Auditus sit, or fuerit, He may have been heard; 
.1. Auditi simus, or fuerimus,TFe may have been heard, 

2. Auditi sitis, or fueritis, Ye may have been heard, 

3. Auditi sint, or fuerint, They may have been heard 



142 



THE VERB — FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



§71 



Pluperfect, mighty could) would) or should have been heard* 

Auditus essem, or fuissem, I might, &c» have been heard y 

Auditus esses, or fuisses, Thoumightst have beenheard % 

Auditus esset, or fuisset, He might have been heard, ; 

Auditi essemus, or fuissemus, We might have been heard, 

Auditi essetis, or fuissetis, Ye might have been heard, 

Auditi essent, or fuissent, They might have been heard* 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



S. 
P. 



Aud-ire, or 



Pres. 
Perf. 
Fut. 



it or 5 
Aud-itor, 
Aud-imini, 
Aud-iuntor, 

INFINITIVE MOOD 

Aud-Iri, 

Esse, or fuisse auditus, 

Auditum iri, 



Be thou heardy 
Let him be heard; 
Be ye heard, 
Let them be heard* 



Tobeheard^Al. 11. 
To have been heard. 
To be about to be heard. 



PARTICIPLES, 



Perf. Auditus -a -urn, Heard, being heard, having been heard* 
Fut. Audiendus-a-um, To be heard, proper ,gt necessary to 

be heard. 



Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 



Indicative. 
Pres. Audior, 
Imp. And ie bar, 
Perf. Auditus sum, 
Plup. Auditus Sram, 
Fut. Audlar, 
JF. P. Auditus fuero. 



Subjunctive. 
Audiar, 
Audlrer, 
Auditus sim, 
Auditus essem. 



limpet. Infinitive. 
Audire.'Audiri, 



Esse or fuisse 

auditus, 
Auditum iri. 



Part, 



Auditus. 

Audien- 
dus- 



After the same manner inflect, 
Munior, mumri, munitus, To be fortified. 

Polior, poliri, politus, To be polished. 

Vincior, vinciri, vinctus, To be bound. 



I 71. EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

1 . Give the designation, &c. as directed, § 59. 1 . — Audior, 
audiar, audiebatur, auditus sum, audietur, audlmini, audie- 
mini, audiamiui, audlremini, auditus fueris, audlre, audiri, 



§ 71 THE VERB. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 143 

audiimtur, audiuntor, audientur, audiantur, auditi sunt, audi- 
tus erat, muniebantur, munitus fuerit, munitus esse, munitus, 
munitur, vincitur, vincietur,vinciatur, vincitor, venitur. 

2. Translate the following into Latin, as directed, § 59. 2. 
He is heard, we were heard, he has been heard, they will be 
heard, ye may be heard, he should be heard, hear ye, to be 
heard, to be about to be heard, I was bound, he will be bound, 
they would be bound, we may have been bound, to be fortifi- 
ed, being fortified, to be about to be fortified, to have been 
fortified, &c. 

Promiscuous Exercises on the Fourth Conjugation. 

3. Give the designation, &c. as directed, § 59. 1. — Audi- 
vit, audivere, audiebatur, audiretur, audiuntur, audiuntor, 
munient, muniverint, muni, munire, munitor, muniens; ve- 
niat, ventum, veniendi, veni, venere, ventum erat, vinciunt, 
vinciuntor, vincirent, vinxisset, vinctus esset, vinctus fuerit, 
venit, venit, &c. 

4. Translate the following words into Latin, &c. as directed, 
§ 57. 2 ; or 59. 2. — I was heard, he heard, he has heard, we 
were heard, ye had been heard, they will be heard, they may 
be he \rd, they might have been heard, let them come, they 
should come, they will come, they will have come, I might 
have been bound, thou hast been bound, thou wilt be bound, 
thou art bound, thou wast bound, to be about to be bound, be- 
ing bound, necessary to be bound, binding, &c. 

5. As directed, §57. 3. 4. — (Dicit he says) se audire, se 
audivisse, eum auditurum esse, eos audituros fuisse, eum au- 
ditum esse, nos auditum iri. (Dixit he said) nos audiri, 
vos auditos esse, illos audituros esse, femmas audituras fu- 
isse, feminas auditum iri, vos vincire, vos vinciri, &c. 

6. Translate as directed, § 57. 5. — He says {dicit) that 
he was heard, that he will hear, that he bound, that he was 
boun 1, that he will come, that we will not (nori) come ; he 
said ( Uxit) that he (himself) heard, that he (someother) heard, 
that we would hear, that they would have been heard, that 
we are bound, that we have been bound, that we will be 
bound, that he has polished, — has been polished, might have 
polished, — might have been polished , to have been polished — 
bound — fortified, proper to be fortified. He will say (dicet) 
that we will hear — will be heard — would have been bound — 
polished, &c. 



144 DEPONENT VERBS. § 72, 73. 

§ 72. DEPONENT AND COMMON VERBS. 

1. Deponent verbs* are those which under a 
passive form have an active signification ; a 
loquor, "I speak ;" morior, " I die." 

2. Common verbs are those which under a pas- 
sive form have an active or passive signification ; 
as, criminor, " I accuse," or u I am accused." 

Obs. 1. All deponent verbs seem to have been originally 
passives. Hence there are many verbs which, though found 
in the active voice, are used as deponents in the passive. 

Obs. 2. In common verbs the passive sense is generally 
confined to the perfect participle; thus, we can say, adeptus 
victoriam, "having obtained the victory ;V or, victoria adep- 
td, " the victory being obtained." Hence adipiscor is called 
a common verb, though in all its parts except the perfect par- 
ticiple, it is usually deponent, or has an active signification. 

Obs. S. Deponent verbs are conjugated and inflected like 
the passive voice of the conjugations to which they belong ; 
except that they have also the participles, gerunds, supines 
and future of the infinitive like the active voice, § 49. 12. 13. 



§ 73. EXAMPLE OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part. 

Miror, mirari, miratus, To admire. 

[Inflected like Amor, § 58.] 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Mir-or, -aris, or -are, &c. I admire, am admiring, &c. 
Imp. Mir-absir,'Jiharis,or -ahare, I adniired, was admiring ', 
Per. Miratus sum, or fui, &c. I have admired, I admired. 
Plu. Miratus -eram,o?*-fueram, I had admired. 
Fut. Mir-abor,-aberis,or-abere I shall, or will admire. 
F.P. Miratus fuero, &c. I shall, or tvill have admired. 

* So called from depono, u I lay aside," because, as is supposed, 
having formerly been common verbs, they have laid aside the pas- 
sive sense. 



§ 74 DEPONENT VERBS. 145 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Mir-er -eris, or -ere, &c. I may, or can admire. 
Imp. Mir-arer, -areris, or -arer e, I might, &c. admire* 
Perf. Miratus sim, or fuerim,&c. I may have admired, 
Plup. Miratus essem, or fuissem, I might, &c. haveadmirtd. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Mir-are, or -ator, &c. Admire thou, &c. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Mirari, To admire, § 47. 11. 

Perf. Miratus esse, or fuisse, To have admired. 
Fut. Miraturus esse, To be about to admire. 

F. perf. Miraturus fuisse, To have been about to admire. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Mirans, Admiring. 

Perf. Miratus, Having admired. 

F. Act. Miraturus, -a, -um, About to admire. 

F. Pass. Mirandus,-a, -um, To be admired, deserving^ 

ov proper to be admired. 

GERUNDS. 

Nom. Mirandum, Admiring. 

Gen. Mirandi, &c. Of admiring. 

SUPINES. 

Former. Miratum, To admire. 

Latter. Miratu, To be admired. 

Synopsis of the moods and tenses, as in Amor, § 58. 



$ 74. DEPONENT VERBS OF THE SECOND CON- 
JUGATION. 

Deponents of the second conjugation are few in number. 
Of these, medeor, " to heal," has no participle of its own. 
In their stead, medicatus is used. Mereor has merui, as well 
as mentus sum in the perfect indicative. Reor has no im- 
perfect subjunctive. 

13 



146 DEPONENT VERBS. § 74 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part. 
Polliceor, polliceri, pollicitus, To promise. 
[Inflected like Moneor, § 62.] 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pres, Pollic-eor, -eris. or -ere, &c. I promise, &c. 
Imp. Pollic-ebar -ebaris,o?* -ebare, &c. I promised, &c. 
Perf. Pollicitus sum, or fui, &c. I have promised, &c. 

Plup. Pollicitus eram, or fueram, &c. I had promised, &c. 
Ftjt. Pollic-ebor -eberis or -ebere, &c. I shall or ivillpromise 9 
F. P. Pollicitus ero, or fuero, &c. I shall, or will have 

promised. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Pollice-ar,-aris, or -are, &c. I may, or canpromise,&,c. 
Imp. Pollic-erer^ereris.or-erere,/^^/^, &c. promise. 
Per. Pollicitus sim, or fuerim, &c./ may have promised, &c. 
Plup. Pollicitus essem, or fuissem, I might, &c.have promised. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Pollic-ere, or -etor, &c. Promise thou, &c. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Polliceri, To promise. § 47.11. 

Perf. Pollicitus esse or fuisse, To have promised. 
Fut. Polliciturus esse, To be about to promise. 

F. Perf. Polliciturus fuisse, To have been about to promise 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Pollicens, Promising. 

Perf. Pollicitus, Having promised. 

Fut. Act. Polliciturus, -a, -um, About to promise. 

Fut. P.ASS.Pollicendus, -a, -um, To be promised. 

GERUNDS. SUPINES. 

Nom. Pollicendum, Promising. 1. Pollicitum, To promise. 
Gen. Pollicendi, Of promising- 2. Pollicitu, To be promised* 

Synopsis of the moods and tenses, as in § 62. 



I 75 DEPONENT VERBS. 147 

$ 75. DEPONENT VERBS OF THE THIRD CON- 
JUGATION. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part. 
Utor uti, usus, To use. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Ut-or -eris, or -ere, &c» I use, do use, am using, &c. 

Imp, Ut-Sbaiy ebaris,or -ebare, I used, did use, was using, &c. 

Perf. Usus sum, or fui, <fcc. I have used, used, did use, &c. 

Plup. Usus eram, or fueram, &c.J had used, &c. 

Fut. Ut-ar, -eris, or -ere, &c. I shall, or wi/Z wse, &c. 

F. P. Usus ero. or fuero, &c. I shall, or will have used, Sec. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pre. Ut-ar, -aris, or -are, &c. I may, or can use, &c. 
Imp. Ut-erer, -eroris or erere, &c.Z might, could^ &c. wse, &c. 
Per. Usus sim, or fuerim, &c. I may have used, &c. 
Plu.Usus essem, or fuissem, &c. I might, &c. haveused, &c. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Ut-ere, or -ltor, &c. Use thou, &c. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Uti, To use. $ 47. II. 

Perf* Usus esse, or fuisse, To have used. 

Fut. Usurus esse, To be about to use. 

F. P Usurus fuisse, To have been about to use* 

PARTICIPLES, 

Pres. Uteris > Using. 

Perf. Usus, Having used. 

F. Act. Usurus, -a, -urn. About to use. 

F. PAss.Utendus, -a, -urn, To be used, &c. 

GERUNDS. SUPINES. 

Nom. Utendum, Using, 1. Usum, To use. 

Gen. Utendi, Of using, &c. 2. Usu, To be used, to use. 

Synopsis of the moods and tenses, as in § 66. 



148 DEPONENT VERBS. § ?6 

§ 76. DEPONENT VERBS OF THE FOURTH CON- 
JUGATION. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Per/. Part, 

Metior. metiri, mensus, To measure* 

Pr, Met-ior, -iris, or -Ire, &c. Imeasure^ am measuring. 
Imp. Meti-ebar, -ebaris, or -ebare, I ' measured, was measuring. 
Per. Mensus sum, or fui, &c. I have measured, measured. 
Plu. Mensus eram, or fueram,&c. / had measured. 
Fur. Meti-ar, -eris, or -ere, &c. I shall, or will measure, 
F. P. Mensus ero 5 or fuero, &c. I shall, ox will have measured. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Meti-ar, -aris, or -are, &c. I may, or can measure. 
Imp. Meti-rer, -reris, or -rere, I might, &c. measure. 
Perf. Mensus sim, or fuerim, jf may have measured. 
Plup. Mensus essem, or fuissem, I mightfao. have measured* 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Met- ire or -itor, &c. Measure thou, &e. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Metiri, To measure, § 47. 11, 

Perf. Mensus esse, or fuisse, To have measured. 

Fut. Mensurus esse, To be about to measure. 

F. Per. Mensurus fuisse, To have been about to measure* 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres, Metiens, Measuring, 

Perf. Mensus, Having measured, 

Fut. Act. Mensurus, -a, -um, About to measure, 

Fut. Pass. Metiendus, -a, -um, Tobemeasurcd. 

GERUNDS. SUPINES 

N. Metiendum, Measuring. 1 . Mensum, To measure, 

G. Metiendi, Of measuring, &c. 2. Mensu,7o be measured. 

Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses, as in § 70. 



§ 77 DEPONENT VERBS. 149 

$ 77. EXERCISES ON DEPONENT VERBS. 

1. Miror, I admire, 3. Utor, I use. 

2. Polliceor, I promise. 4. Metior, I measure. 

1. Give the designation* of the verb, — conjugate it, — give the tense, 
mood, person, number, and translation of the following words, always 
observing the same order, thus; — Miror, verb, trans., deponent, first, 
Miror, mirari, mirdtus. It is found in the present indicative, first 
person, singular; " I admire, do admire, am admiring." 

Mirabatur, mirabitur, mirantur, mirabuntur, mirarentur, 
pollicitus sum, pollicitus erat, pollicitus fuerit, pollicerentur, 
utitur, usus est, uti, usurus, utens, utendum, uteretur, utar, 
metiris, metiuntur, metiuntor, metimini, mensus erat, mensus 
sit, mensi fuerunt, utere, utere, pollicere, pollicitus, pollicens. 

2. Translate the following English yjords into Latin, naming the 
part if the verb used-, thus, " I have admired ; v miratus sum: In the 
perfect indicative, first person, singular. 

They will use, we shall measure, let them measure, about 
to use, we have used, they may have used, he will have us- 
ed, they will promise, they w r ould have promised, we might 
admire, I would have used, use thou, let them use, promise 
ye, let us use, (§ 45.1. 1.) let us admire, they have promis- 
ed, promising, having promised, to measure, let us measure. 

3. Translate the following into English, according to the 
Rules and Examples, § 57. 3. 4. — Dicit (he says) me mi- 
rare, vos polliceri, nos miratos esse, eos pollicitiiros esse, 
homines menstiros esse, feminas pollicituras esse, te uti, se 
mirari, eum mirari, me mensurum esse, vos usuros, (§ 47. 
Note 1.) dicitur (he is said) pollicitus esse, (§ 47. 6.) 
Dixit (he said) se mirari, nos pollicitos esse, eos pollicitu- 
ros, vos mensos esse, feminas mensuras 9 eum pollicitum. 

4. Translate the following into Latin, according to di- 
rection, $ 57. 5. — He says (dicit) that I am using, that thou 
admirest, that he has measured, that we will promise, that 
the men will measure, that the women will use, that you 
will measure^ that I would have used, that they would have 
admired, that they admired. He said (dixit) that I was 
using, — had been using, that you were measuring, that he 
measured, that they had promised, that they would use. 

* In parsing deponent verbs, it is necessary in giving the designa- 
tion to state whether the verb, as there used, intransitive or intransi- 
tive: But in stating the part of the verb used, it is unnecessary to 
mention the voice, because deponent verbs have only the passive form. 

13* 



150 NEUTER PASSIVE VERBS. § 78 

§78. NEUTER PASSIVE VERBS. 

1. Neuter Passive Verbs, are those which with an in- 
transitive or neut. meaning throughout, have a passive form in 
the perfect, and tenses derived from it, but an active form in 
the other tenses. They are the following. 

Second Conjugation. 

Audeo, audere, ausus, To dare. 

Gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus, To rejoice. 

Soleo, solere, solitus, To be wont. 

Third Conjugation. 
Fido, fidere, fisus, To trust. 

So also the compounds of fido, confido, "I trust," and 
diffido, " I distrust," which have also conf Idi, and diffzdi,in 
the perfect. Neuter-passives are inflected thus, 

SECOND CONJUGATION. 
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. P^rf. Part* 
Audeo, audere, ausus, To dare. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Aud-eo, -es, -et, &c. I dare, do dare, am daring. 

Imp. Aud-ebam, -ebas, ebat, &c. I dared, was daring, &c. 
Perf. Ausus sum, or fui, &c, Ihave dared, dared, did dare 
Plup. Ausus eram, or fueram, i" had dared. 
Fut. Aud-ebo, -ebis, -ebit, &c. I shall, or will dare. 
F.P. Ausus fuero, &c. I shall have dared. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Aud-eam, -eas, -eat, &c. I may, or can dare. 
Imp. Aud-erem,-eres, -eret, &c.I?night, could &c. dare. 
Perf. Ausus sim, or fuerim, &c. / may have dared. 
Plup. Ausus essem, or f uissem, Sic. I ?night, &c. have dared. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Aud-e, or -eto, &c. Dare thou,Scc. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Audere, To dare, § 47. 11. 

Perf. Ausus esse, or fuisse, To have dared. 

Fut. Ausurus esse, To be about to dare. 

F. Perf. Ausurus fuisse, To have been about to dare. 



§ 79 THE VERB GENERAL REMARKS. 151 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Audens, Daring, 

Perf. Ausus, -a, -urn, Having dared, 

Fut. Act. Ausurus, -a, -urn, About to dare. 

Fut. Pass. Audendus, a, -um, To be dared, &c. (seldom used.) 

GERUNDS. SUPINES. 

Nom. Audendum, Daring. 1. Ausum, To dare. 

Gen. Audendi, &c. Of daring. 2. Ausu, To be dared, to dare. 

2. The following verbs are called Neutral Passives, namely 
fio, " I am made," or u I become;" vapulo, " I am beaten 5" 
vtjieo, "lam sold." They have an active form, but a passive 
signification, and serve as passives to f ado, verbero and vendo. 
Fio has the passive form in the preterite tenses, § 83. 8. 



§ 79. GENERAL REMARKS ON THE CONJUGA- 
TIONS. 

1. The perfect and pluperfect active, both in the indica- 
tive and subjunctive, are often shortened by a syncope as 
follows : 

1st. In the first conjugation avi and ave often drop vi and ve before 
s or r, and circumflect the a, thus ; for amavisti, amavissem, amav£ram % 
amavZro, amaverim, &e. we often have amdsti, amdssem, amdram, 
amdro, amdrim, &c. Also in the second and third conjugation -evi, 
drops vi in the same situation; as, compltsti, for complevisti ; dele- 
ram, for delcvtram; decressem, for decrevissem ; &c. But ovi is syn- 
copated only in the preterite verb novi, and the compounds of movSo; 
as, nor ant, for novtrant; nbsse, for novisse ; commdssem, for commo 
vissem, &e. 

2d. In the fourth conjugation mi, frequently loses vi before s; as, 
audisti, for audivisti ; audhsem, for audlvissem. Sometimes the v 
only is dropped between two vowels : as, audii for audivi ; audiZram 
for audivtram, &c. And so also with other preterites of the same 
form, with the tenses derived from them ; as, peiii for petivi ; iSram 
{or iv tram, &c. 

2. The perfect indicative active, third person, plural, has 
two forms, -Brunt and -ere. Both forms have the same mean- 



152 GENERAL REMARKS, ETC. § 79 

ing, the first is more common with the earlier, and the se- 
cond with the later writers. 

3. In the passive voice there are two forms of the second 
person, singular, namely, -ris and -re. The termination -re 
is rarely used in the present indicative ; in the other tenses 
-re is more common than -ris, especially in Cicero. 

4. The imperatives of dico, duco,facio and/ero, are usu- 
ally written die, due, fac 7 fer; also in their compounds ex- 
cept in those of facio which change a into i; as con/ice, per- 
flee, &c. 

5. In the old forms of the language, the present infinitive 
passive was lengthened, especially among the poets, by add- 
ing -er; as, amdrier for amari; — legier for legi, &c. 

6. The terminations -rtmus and -rttis in the Future-per- 
fect indicative, and Perfect subjunctive, have the i sometimes 
long and sometimes short. It is marked short in the preced- 
ing paradigms. The pupil may be accustomed to give it 
both ways. 

7. In the passive voice, the perfect and pluperfect have 
two forms. Of these, the perfect participle with fui and 
fueram expresses the completion of past action more empha- 
tically than when joined with sum and eram. Thus, pransus 
sum means, " I have dined," "I have just dined 5" pransus 
fui, means, "I have dined sometime ago." § 49. 14. 

8. The verb sum, through all its tenses with the future 
participle in -rus, is used to express the intention, at the time 
referred to, of doing a thing presently, or that the action is, 
or was, or will be on the point of being done. When this 
idea is to be conveyed, this form of expression is used in pre- 
ference to the Future, which simply denotes that an act will 
be effected in future time. This, which proceeds as follows, 
is sometimes called the, 

FIRST PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Amaturus (-a -um) sum, I am about to love y 

Imp. Amaturus eram, I was about to love y 

Perf. Amaturus fui, I have been about to love 9 

Plup. Amaturus fueram, I had been about to love, 

Fut. Amaturus ero, I shall be about to love* 
Amaturus fuero, is not used. 



§ 79 GENERAL REMARKS, ETC. 153 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOT). 

Pre. Amaturus sira, I may be about to love. 
Imp. Amaturus essem, I might, &c. be about to love* 
Per. Amaturus fuerim, J may have been about to love, 
PiiUp. Amaturus fuissem, I might, &c. have been about to love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD 

Pres. Amaturus esse, To be about to love. 

Perf. Amaturus fuisse, To have been about to love. 

9. In like manner, the future participle in -dus, express- 
ing propriety or necessity of doing at the time referred to, is 
joined with all the tenses of the verb sum, and thus forms 
what is called the, 

SECOND PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION. 

Thus,pR. Amandus sum. I deserve, or ought to be loved, 

Imp. Amandus eram,/ deserved, or ought to be loved. &c. 

and so forth through all the other tenses, as with the partici- 
ple in -rus, No. 8. In analyzing such expressions, however, 
it is better to parse each word of the compound separately, 
and combine them by the rules of syntax. A stronger neces- 
sity is expressed by the Gerund, with the verb est; thus, 
scribendum est mihi epistolam, is "I must write a letter, 
i. e. I am compelled to do it , whereas, scribenda est mihi 
epistola, means simply, "I should write a letter," see syn- 
tax, § 147. 

10. The future infinitive passive is a compound of iri, 
the present infinitive passive of eo, u to go," used imperson- 
ally, and the supine in -um; so that amatum iri, literally is 
w to be going to love." 

11. The verbal adjective in -bundus, is rendered like the 
present participle, but with increased strength ; thus, errans 
wandering; errabundus, " wandering too and fro ;" moriens, 
"dying;" moribundus, "in the agonies of death," &c. 

12. The meaning and use of the Gerundive participle al- 
ready mentioned, § 49. 7, will be more fully explained in 
Syntax, § 147. Rule LXII. 



154 COMPOUND VERBS. § 80 

§ 80. COMPOUND VERBS. 
Verbs are compounded chiefly with prepositions, which 
modify the simple verb according to their respective mean- 
ings ; thus, eo " I go" in composition with different preposi- 
tions is modified by them; as, adeo " I go to ;" abeo, "I go 
from;" exeo, " I go out 5" ineo, "I go in," &c. In the for- 
mation of compounds due regard must be paid to the follow- 
ing 

GENERAL RULES. 

1. Compound verbs form the perfect and supine in the 
same manner as simple verbs; as, Amo, amdre, amdvi, ama- 
turn; red-amo, red-amdre, red-amdvi, red-amdtum. 

2. Simple verbs which double the first syllable in the per- 
fect, drop the reduplication in the compounds ; as pello, pe- 
puli\ re-pello, re-pulz. Except prcecurro, re-pungo, and 
the compounds of do, sto, disco* and posco. 

3. Compound verbs which change a of the present into i, 
have e in the Supine ; as, facio, per-ficio. Sup. perfectum. 
Except verbs ending in -do, -go; with the compounds of 
habeo, placeo, salio, sapio, and statuo. 

4. Verbs which are defective in the Perfect likewise want 
the Supine. 

5. The following changes, which happen to the preposition, 
and to the simple verb, in a state of composition, merit atten- 
tion. 

A is used in composition before m and r. Ah before vowels, and 
d, f, h, h h n i V) s - Before fero and fugio, it becomes au ; as, 
aufero, aufugio. Abs is used before c and t : as, abscedo, abstuli. 

Ad changes d into the first letter of the simple beginning with c, 
/» Si h n ) Pi r ) s j *: as > accurro, officio, aggero. In some wri- 
ters it remains unaltered, as adficio . 

Am, (i. e. ambi, from afMpi,circtj»i,) before c, q. f, h, is changed 
into an: as, anquiro, anhelo. Sometimes it assumes its own b: as, 
ambio. 

Circum remains unaltered. The m is sometimes changed : as, 
circundo for circumdo ; or omitted : as, circueo for circumeo. 

Con, before a vowel or h, drops the n : as, coaleo, cohibeo ; before 
I, its n becomes I; and before b, p, m, it becomes m; and before r 
it changes n into r ; as, colligo, comburo, comparo, commeo, corripio. 
In comburo it assumes b after it. 

Di is used before d, g, I, m, n, v: as, diduco, digladior. Dis 
and di before r : as, disrumpo, dirumpo ; likewise before j: as, dis* 
judico, dijudico. Dis is used before c, p, q, s, t: as, discumbo, dis* 



§81 LIST OF VERBS. 155 

pello Before sp and st, s is removed, and before/ it is changed 
into/; as, dispicio, disto, diffiteor. Before a vowel, it assumes r ; 
as, dirimo, from emo. 

E is found before b, d, g, 1, m, n, r, and before j and v: as, 
ebibo, educo, ej'icio, eveho. Ex is used before vowels, and h, c, p, 
q, t, s: as, exaro exhibeo excutio ; before /, x becomes/: as, 

In sometimes changes n into the first letter of the simple verb : as, 
illudo; but before b, m, p, itchanges n into m : as, imbibo, immineo, 
impleo 

Ob generally remains unaltered. The b is sometimes omitted, as 
in omitto ; or changed into the first letter of the simple verb : as, 
offero. 

Re assumes d before d, a vowel, or k : as ; reddo, redamo, redeo, 
redhibeo. Pro likewise sometimes takes a d. as in prodeo. 

Sub changes b into the consonant of the simple, before c, /, g, m 3 
p, r : as, succedo, suffer o, suggero. Submitto and summitto ; submo m 
veo, and smnmoveo, are both used. 

Trans is generally contracted into tra, before d, j, n: as, trado, 
trajicio, trano ; and sometimes before I and m ; as, traluceo, trameo. 
Post becomes pos in postuli. Few if any changes take place in the 
other prepositions. Other prefixes consist of verbs, as in calefacio, 
of caleo ; of adverbs, as in benefacio, of bene ) of participles and 
adjectives, as in mansuefacio , magnifico, of mansuetus and magnus ; 
of substantives, as in significo, ofsignum; of a preposition and 
noun, as in animadverto, of ad and animus. 



§ 81. LIST OF VERBS IRREGULAR IN THE PRE- 
TERITE AND SUPINE. 

[Owing to the irregularity of many verbs in the Preterite and Sup'ine in the 
third conjugation, and of not a few in the other conjugations also, no rules 
that could be given would be of much practical utility. The only effectual 
way to attain accuracy and readiness in the conjugation of verbs, is to commit 
the primary parts or the conjugation accurately from the Dictionary. To be 
able to do this as soon as possible, is of great importance to every scholar; 
and it is not a task of so great difficulty as might be supposed. The following list 
contains all the simple verbs that vary in the preterite and supine, from the 
general rule. By committing a portion of these to memory every day, to be 
recited with the ordinary lesson, and repeating this exercise in revisals till the 
whole is inwrought into the memory, much future labor will be saved; and 
this can be done in a few weeks, without at all interfering with the regular re- 
citations. When the composition of a verb changes its form, it is noticed at 
the foot of the page, to which reference is made by numbers. 1 



156 



PEETKRITES AND SUPINES. 



§81 



FIRST CONJUGATION. 

Rule. — Verbs of the First Conjugation have avi in the 
Perfect, and atum in the Supine : as, 

Amo, amare, amavi, amatum, To love. 

Muto, mutare, mutavi, mutatum, To change. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

The Tenses of some Verbs included in the lists of Exceptions are 
also found, especially in the earliest authors, conjugated according to 
the General Rules. The form here given is that which is in common 
use. 



Pres. 


Inf. 


Perf. 


Sup. 




Do, 1 


dare, 


dedi, 


datum, 


To give. 


Sto,2 


stare, 


steti, 


statum, 
C lotum, 


To stand. 


Lavo, 


C lav are, 
) lavere. 


lavi, 


< lautum, 
( lava turn, 


To wash, 


Poto, 


p ota re, 


potavi, 


$ potum, or 
\ potatum, 


To drink. 


Juvo, 3 


juvare, 


j^vi, 


jutum, 


To assist. 


Ctibo.' 


cuba re, 


cubui, 


cubltum, 


To lie. 


Domo, 


domare, 


domui, 


domltum, 


To subdue. 


S6no,5 


sonare, 


sonui, 


sonltum, 


To sound. 



1 Circumdo, to surround; pessundo, to ruin; satisdo, to give sure- 
ty; and venundo, to sell, are conjugated like do. The other Com- 
pounds belong to the Third Conjugation, and have didiin the Perfect, 
and ditum in the Supine : as, abdo, abdidi, abditum, abdSre, to hide; 
reddo, reddldi, redditum, to give back. 

2 The Compounds of sto have stiti in the Perfect, and statum in 
the Supine: as, consto, constiti, constatum, to stand together. Some 
of the Compounds have occasionally stitum in the Supine: as, prcesto, 
prcesliti, prcestltum, or prcestatum, to stand before, to excel. Adsto, 
to stand by, insto, to urge on, and resto ) to remain over and above, 
have no Supine. Antesto, to stand before; circumsto, to stand round; 
instersto, to stand between; and supersto, to stand over, have stHi, in 
the Perfect, and the first two, and probably the others also, want the 
Supine. Disto to be distant, and substo to stand under, have neither 
Perfect nor Supine. 

3 The Supine jutum is doubtful, as the Future Participle is juva- 
turns. Adjuvo has adjutwn only, and adjuturus. 

4 In the same manner those Compounds are conjugated which do 
not assume an m: as, accubo, to lie next to; excubo, to watch; in- 
cubo, to lie upon; reciibo, to lie down again; secubo, to lie apart. 
The Compounds which assume an m belong to the Third Conjuga- 
tion, and have ui and itum in the Perfect and Supine: as, incumbo ) 
incubui, incubitum, to lie upon. 

5 The Future Participle is sondturus. 



§81 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



157 



TVno,6 
Veto,? 

Crepo, 8 
Mlco,9 
Frlco, 10 
£eco, 

Neco, 11 

Labo, 
Nexo, 
Plico, 12 



Inf. 

ton a re, 
v eta re, 
crepare, 
mica re, 
fricare, 
secare, 

necare. 

labare, 
nexare. 
plicare, 



Per/. 

tonui, 

vetui, 

crepui, 

micui, 

fricui, 

seeui, 

necivi, 

necui. 



Sup. 

tonltum. 
vetitum, 
ere pi turn, 



frictum, 
sectum, 
necatum, 



To thunder. 

To forbid. 

To make a noiH. 

To glitter. 

To rub. 

To cut. 

To kill. 

To fall, or faint. 
To bind. 
To fold. 



SECOND CONJUGATION. 

Rule. — Verbs of the Second Conjugation have ui in the 
Perfect, and itum in the Supine : as, 

Moneo, monere, monui, monitum, To advise* 

Habeo, 1 habere, habui, habitum, To have. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

Intransitives which have ui in the Perfect, want the Supine : as, 
aplendeo, splendui, to shine ; madeo, madui, to be wet. 

The following Intransitives have ui and itum, according to the 
general rule : 

Caleo, to be hot. Coaleo, to grow together. 

Careo, to want. Doleo, to grieve. 

6 Intono has intonaius in the Perfect Participle. 

7 VHo has sometimes veiavi in the Perfect. 

8 Discrtpo, to differ, and incrtpo, to chide, have sometimes avi 
and atum. as well as ui and itum. Incrtpo has seldom the latter form. 

9 Emico, to shine forth, has emicui, emicatum ; and dimico, to 
fight, has dimicdvi (rarely dimicui.) dimicaium. 

10 Some of the Compounds of frlco have the Participles formed 
from the regular Supine in atum: as, confriedtus, infricatus. 

11 Entco, to kill, and interneco, to destroy, have also ui and ectum : 
the Participle of eneco is usually enectus. 

12 Duplico, to double, muliiplico, to multiply: replico. to unfold, 
and supplico, to entreat humbly, have avi and atum. The other 
Compounds of plico have either ui and itum, or avi and atum : as, 
applico, to apply, applicui, applicUum, or applicavi, applicatum. 
Explico, in the sense of explain, has avi and atum; in the sense of 
unfold, it has ui and Hum. 

1 The Compounds of habeo change a into i: as, adhibeo, adhibui, 
adhibitu7n, to admit ; prohibeo, prohibui, prohibitum, to forbid. 

14 



158 



PRETEKITES AND SUPINES. 



§81 



Jaceo, to lie, 
Lateo. 2 to lie hid. 
Liceo, to be valued, 
Mereo, to deserve. 



Noceo, to hurt. 
Pareo, to appear. 
Placeo, to please. 
Valeo, to be in health. 



Pres. 

Doceo, 
Teneo, 3 

Misceo, 

Censeo, 4 

Torreo, 

Sorbeo, 5 

Tlmeo, 

Sileo, 

Arceo, 6 

Taceo, 7 

Prandeo, 8 

Video, 

Sedeo, 9 

Strideo, 

Frendeo, 

Mordeo, 10 

Pendeo, 

Spondeo, 

Tondeo, 


Inf. 
docere, 
tenere, 

miscere, 

censere, 

torrere, 

sorbere, 

timere, 

silere , 

arcere, 

tacere, 

prandere, 

videre, 

sedere, 

stridere, 

frendere. 

mordere, 

pendere, 

spondere, 

tondere, 


Perf. 
docui, 
tenui, 

miscui, j 

censui, 

torrui, 

sorbui, 

timui, 

silui, 

arcui, 

tacui, 

prandi, 

vidi, 

sedi, 

stridi, 

frendi, 

momordi, 

pependi, 

spopondi 

totondi, 


Sup. 

doctum, 

tentum, 
i mistum, or 
[ mixtum, 

censum, 

tostum, 

sorptum, 


To teach. 
To hold. 

To mix. 

To think, to judge. 

To roast. 

To sup. 

To fear. 

To be silent. 

To drive away. 

To be silent. 

To dine. 

To see. 

To sit. 

To make a noise. 

To gnash the teeth* 

To bite. 

To hang. 

To promise. 

To clip. 






taciturn, 
pransuin, 
visum, 
sessum, 


fressum, 
morsum, 
pensum. 
, sponsum, 
tonsum, 



2 The Compounds of lateo want the Supine : as, deliteo, delitui, 
to lurk ; perlateo, perlatui, to lie hid. 

3 The Compounds of tZneo change e into i : as contineo, continui, 
contentum, to hold together. Jlttineo, to hold ; and pertineo, to be- 
long to, have no Supine j and abstineo, to abstain from, seldom. 

4 Censeo has also census sum in the Perfect, and censltum in the 
Supine, Accenseo, to reckon with, and pcrcenseo, to recount, want 
the Supine ; and recenseo, to review, has recensum, and recensitum. 

6 Absorbeo } to sup up, and exsorbeo, to sup out, have sometimes 
absorpsi, and exsorpsi in the Perfect. The latter', with resorbeo, to 
draw back, has no Supine. 

6 The Compounds of arceo have Itum in the Supine : as, exerceOj 
exercui, exercitum, to exercise. 

7 The Compounds of tdceo want the Supine : as, conticeo, conti* 
cui, to keep silence ; reticeo, reticui, to remain silent, to conceal. 

8 ^The Participle pransus is used in the Active sense of having dined. 

9 Desideo, to sit idle, dissideo, to disagree, persideo, to continue, 
prcetideo, to sit before, resideo, to sit down, to rest, and subsideo, to 
subside, want the Supine. 

10 The Compounds of mordeo, pendeo, spondeo, and tondeo, do not 
double the first syllable of the Perfect. See Rule 2, § 80. Imr 
pendeo, to overhang, has no Perfect or Supine. 



§81 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



169 



Pres. 



Inf. 



Perf. 



Sup, 



Moveo, 11 


movere, 


movi, 


mo turn, 


Foveo, 


fovere, 


fovi, 


fotum, 


Voveo, 


vovere, 


vovi, 


votum, 


Faveo, 


favere, 


favi, 


fa u turn, 


Caveo, 


cavere. 


cavi, 


cautum, 


Puveo, 


pavtre, 


pavi, 




Ferveo, 12 


fervere, 


ferbui, 





Conniveo, 


connivere, 


conniv i or 


•ixi, 


Deleo, 


delere, 


delevi, 


delelum, 


Compleo, 13 


complere, 


complevi, 


completum, 


Fleo, 


flere, 


flevi, 


fletum, 


Neo, 


nere, 


nevi, 


netum, 


Vieo 


viere, 


vievi, 


vie turn, 


Cieo, 1 * 


ciere, 


(civi,) 


cltum , 


Oleo,^ 


olere, 


olui, 


(olltum,) 


Suadeo, 


suadere, 


sua si, 


sua sum, 


Rldeo, 


ridere, 


risi, 


risum, 


Maneo, 


manere, 


mansi, 


mansum, 


Hasreo, 


hserere, 


hsesi, 


haesum, 


Ardeo, 


ardere, 


arsi, 


arsum, 


Tergeo, 


tergere, 


tersi, 


tersum, 


Mulceo, 


mulcere, 


mulsi, 


mulsum, 


Mulgeo, 


mulgere, 


mulsi, 


$ mulsum, or 
I mulctum, 


Jubeo, 


jubere, 


jussi, 


jussum, 


Indulgeo, 


indulgere, 


indulsi, 


indultum^ 


Torqueo, 


torquere, 


torsi, 


tortum, 


Augeo, 


augere, 


auxi, 


auctum, 


Urgeo, 


urgere, 


ursi, 





Fulgeo, 


fulgere, 


fulsi, 





Turgeo, 


turgere, 


tursi, 






To move. 
To cherish. 
To vow. 
To favour. 
To beware of, 
To be afraid. 
To boil. 
To wink. 
To destroy. 
To Jill. 
To weep. 
To spin. [sel. 
To hoop a ves- 
To stir up. 
To smell. 
To advise. 
To laugh. 
To stay. 
To stick. 
To burn. 
To wipe. 
To stroke. 

To milk. 

To order. 
To indulge. 
To twist. 
To increase. 
To press. 
To shine. 
To swell. 



11 Verbs in veo undergo a contraction in the Supine. Neuter 
Verbs in veo want the Supine: as, paveo.pavi, to be afraid. 

12 Fervo,fervi, another form of this Verb belonging to the Third 
Conjugation, is used in a few persons, and in the Present Infinitive. 

13 The other Compounds of the obsolete Verb pleo are conjugated 
in the same way: as, explco, impleo, repleo, suppleo. 

14 Civi is the Perfect of cio of the Fourth Conjugation, having 
citum in the Supine. The Compounds, in the sense of calling, are 
generally conjugated according to this form: as excio, excitum. 

15 The Compounds of oleo which retain the sense of the Simple 
Verb have ui and itum: as, oboleo obolui. obolitum, to smell strong- 
ly. The Compounds which adopt a different signification have evi 
and Hum: as, exoleo, exolevi, exoletum, to fade; obsoleo, obsoltvi, 
obsoletum, to grow out of use; inoleo, inolevi, inoletum, or inolitum, 
to come into use. Aboleo, to abolish, has abolevi, abolitum; and 
adoleo, to grow up, to burn, has adolevi, adultum. 



160 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



§81 



Algeo, algere, alsi, To be cold. 

Lugeo, lugere, luxi, To mourn. 

Luceo, lucere, luxi, To shine. 

Frigeo, frigere, frixi, To be cold. 

The following Verbs want both Perfect and Supine : 

Llveo, to be black and blue. 
Mcereo, to be sorrowful. 



Aveo, to desire. 
Denseo, to grow thick. 



Flaveo, to be yellow. 
Glabreo, to be smooth. 
Hebeo, to be blunt. 
Lacteo, to grow milky. 



Renideo, to shine. 
Polleo, to be powerful. 
Scateo, to flow out. 



THIRD CONJUGATION. 

Verbs of the Third Conjugation form the Perfect and Su- 
pine variously. 



To do, to make. 

To throw. 

To behold. 

To allure. 

To dig. 

To fly. 

To take. 

To seize 

To taste, to be wise. 

To desire. 

To bring forth. 



1 Facio, when compounded with a Preposition, changes a into i: 
as, afficio, affeci, affectum, to affect. In the other Compounds the a 
is retained. A few Compounds end in flco, and ficor, and belong to 
the First Conjugation: as, amplifico, to enlarge; sacrifico, to sacri- 
fice: gratificor, to gratify; and ludificor, to mock. 

2 The Compounds of jacio, change a into i: as abjicio, abjeci, ab~ 
jectum. 

3 The Compounds of the obsolete Verbs spZcio, and lacio, have 
exi, and ectum; except elicio, to draw out, which has elicui, and elu 
cttum. 

4 The Compounds of capio, rapio, and sapio, change a into i: as, 
accipio,accepi, acceptum, to receive; abripio, abripui, abreptum, to 
carry off; consfpio, consipui, to be in one's senses. 

6 The Compounds of pario have perui and pertum, and belong to 
the Fourth Conjugation: as, aptrio, aperire, aperui, apertum, to 
open. So opt-rio, to shut, to cover. But comptrio, (which also has a 







10. 


Pres. 


Inf. 


Perf. 


Sup. 


Facio,i 


fa cere, 


feci, 


factum, 


Jacio, 2 


jacere, 


jeci, 


jactum, 


Aspicio, 3 


aspicere? 


aspexi, 


aspectum, 


Alllcio, 


allicere, 


allexi, 


allectum, 


Fodio, 


fodere, 


fodi, 


fossum, 


Fugio, 


fugere, 


fugi, 


fugitum, 


Capio, 4 


capere, 


cepi, 


captum, 


Rapio, 


rapere, 


rapui, 


raptum, 


Sapio, 


sapere, 


sapui, 





Cupio, 


cupere, 


cupivi, 


cupitum, 


Pario, 5 


parere, 


peperi, 


S partum, or 
I pariUim. 



§ 81 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



161 



Pres. 


Inf. 


Per/. 


Supine. 




Quatio, 6 


quatere, 


(quassi,) 


quassum, 


To shake. 






UO. 




Acuo, 


acuere, 


acui, 


acutum, 


To sharpen. 


Arguo, 


arguere, 


argui, 


ar gu turn, 


To show, to prove 


Batuo, 


batuere, 


batui, 


batutum, 


To beat. 


Exuo, 


exuere, 


exui, 


exutum, 


To put off clothes. 


Irabuo, 


imbuere, 


imbui, 


imbiitum, 


To moisten , to wet 


Induo, 


induere, 


indui, 


indutum, 


To put on clothes. 


Mlnuo, 


minuere, 


minui, 


minutum, 


To lessen. 


Spuo, 7 


spue re, 


spui, 


sputum, 


To spit. 


Statuo, 


statuere, 


statui, 


statu turn, 


To set, to place. 


Sternuo, 


sternuere. 


sternui, 


sternutum, 


To sneeze. 


Suo, 


suere, 


sui, 


siitum, 


To sew, to stitch. 


Tribuo, 


tribuere, 


tribui, 


tributum, 


To give, to divide. 


Fluo, 


fluere, 


fluxi, 


fiuxum, 


To flow. 


Struo, 


struere, 


struxi, 


structum, 


To build. 


Luo. 8 


luere, 


lui, 


lultum, 


To pay, to wash. 


Ruo, 


ruere, 


rui, 


ruitum, 


To rushy to fall. 


Metuo, 
Plao, 


metuere, 
pluere, 


metui, 
plui, 




To fear. 
To rain. 




Congruo, 


congruere, 


congrui, 




To agree. 


Ingruo, 
Annuo, 10 


ingruere, 
annuere, 


ingrui, 
annul, 




To assail. 
To assent. 










BO 






Blbo, 


bibere, 


bibi, 


bibltum, 


To drink. 


Scabo, 

Lambo, 

Scribo, 


scabere, 
lambere, 
scribere, 


scabi, 
Iambi, 
scripsi. 




To scratch. 

To lick. 

To write. [ried. 




scriptum, 


Nubo," 


nubere, 


nupsi, 


nuptum, 


To veil, to be mar- 


GlQbo, 


glubere, 






To strip, to flay. 







Deponent form in the Present Indicative and Infinitive, comperior, 
comperiri,) to know a thing for certain, has compZri, compertum ; 
and reph'io, to find, has. reperi, repertum. 

6 The Compounds of quatio take the form cutio, and have cussi 
and cussum : as, conditio, to shake violently, concussi, concussum. 

7 Respuo, to spit out, to reject, has no Supine. 

8 The Compounds of luo have utum in the Supine : as, abluo, 
ablui, ablutum, to wash away, to purify. 

9 The Compounds of ruo have utum iu the Supine : as, diruo, 
dirui, dirutum, to overthrow. Cor ruo, to fall together, and irruo, 
to rush in furiously, have no Supine. 

10 The other Compounds of the obsolete nuo, as abnuo, to refuse ; 
innuo, to nod with the head ; and renuo, to deny, likewise want the 
Supine. JLbnuiturus, Fut. Participle from abnuo, is found. 

11 Nupta sum, another form of the Perfect, is sometimes used in 
stead of nupsi. 

14* 



162 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



§81 



CO. 



Pres. 
Dico, 

Duco, 
Vinco, 

Parco, 12 

Ico, 
Cresco, 



Nosco, 13 

Quiesco, 

Scisco, 

Suesco, 

Pasco, 14 

Disco, 

Posco, 

Glisco. 15 



Inf. 
dicer e, 
ducere, 
vincere, 

pareere, 

icere, 
crescere, 



Perf. 

dixi, 

duxi, 

vici, 
( peperci, or 
( parsi. 

ici, 

crevi, 



Supine. 
dictum, 
ductum, 
victum, 
$ parsura, or 
( parcltum, 
ictum, 
cretum, 

SCO. 



noscere, 

quiescere, 

sciscere, 

suescere, 

pascere, 

discSre, 

poscere, 

gliscere, 



no vi, 

quievi, 

sclvi, 

suevi, 

pavi, 

didlci, 

poposci, 



notum, 

quietum, 

scitum, 

suetum, 

pastum, 



DO. 



Accendo, 

Cudo, 

Defendo, 

Edo,i6 

Mando, 

Prehendo, 

Scando, 

Divldo, 

Rado, 

Claudo," 

Plaudo,l8 

Ludo, 



accendere, 


accendi, 


accensum, 


cudere, 


cudi, 


cusum, 


defender e, 


defendi, 


defensum, 


edere, 


edi, 


esum, 


mandere, 


mandi, 


mansum, 


prehendere, 


prehendi, 


prehensum, 


scandere, 


scandi, 


scansura, 


dividere. 


divlsi, 


divisum, 


radere, 


rasi, 


rasum, 


claudere, 


clan si, 


clausum, 


plaudere, 


plausi, 


plausum, 


ludere, 


]usi, 


lusum, 



To say. 
To lead. 
To overcome.. 

To spare. 

To strike. 
To grow. 



To know. 
To rest. 
To ordain. 
To be accustomed. 
Tofeed. 
To learn. 
To demand- 
To glitter, to grow. 



To kindle. 
To forge, 
To defend. 
To eat. 
To chew. 
To take hold of. 
To climb. 
To divide. 
To shave. 
To close. 
To applaud. 
To play. 



12 The form parsi and parcltum is seldom used. 

13 The Fut. Part, is nosciturus from noscitum, the old form of the 
Supine. JLgnosco, to own, has agnovi, agnitum; and cognosco, to 
know, has cognovi, cognitum. 

14 Compesco, to feed together, to restrain ; and dispesco, to sepa- 
rate, have compescui, and dispescui, without the Supine. 

15 Fatisco, to be weary, likewise wants both Perfect and Supine : 
rnd also all Inceptive Verbs, unless when they adopt the Tenses of 
their Primitives : as, ardesco; to grow hot, arsi, arsum. § 88. Obs. 4. 

16 All the Compounds of Mo are conjugated in the same manner, 
except comedo, to eat up, which has comesum, or comestum in the 
Supine. See 83. 9. 

17 The Compounds of claudo change au into u: as, concludo, cow 
clusi, conclusum, to conclude. Circumclaudo is found in Caesar. 

18 The Compounds of plaudo, except ap- and circum-plaudo, 
change au into o : as, explodo, explosi, explosum, to reject. 



§81 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



163 



Pres. 


Inf. 


Perf. 


Sup. 




Trudo, 


trudere, 


trusi, 


trusum, 


To thrust. 


Laedo, ™ 


laedere, 


laesi, 


laesum, 


To hurt. 


Rodo, 


rodere, 


rosi, 


rdsum, 


To gnaw. 
Togo. 
To yield. 


Vado,20 


vadere, 





- \ 


Cedo, 


cedere, 


cessi, 


cessum, 


Pando, 


pandere, 


pandi, 


( passum, or 
I pansum, 


To open. 


Fundo, 


fundere, 


fiidi, 


fusum, 


To pour forth. 


Scindo, 


scindere, 


scldi, 


scissum, 


To cut. 


Findo, 


findere, 


fldi, 


fissum, 


To cleave. 


Tundo,2l 


tundsre, 


tutudi, 


( tunsum, or 
I t'Jsum, 


To beat. 


Cado,22 


cadere, 


cecldi, 


clsum, 


To fall. 


CcEdo,23 


csedere, 


cecldi, 


C33SU1I1, 

^ tensum, or 
{ tentum, 


To cut, to kill. 


Teado 5 2* 


tendere, 


tetendi, 


To stretch. 


Pendo, 


pendere, 


pependi, 


pensum, 


To hang. 


Credo, 25 


credere, 


credldi, 


credltum, 


To believe. 


Vendo, 


vendere, 


vendldi, 


vendltum, 


To sell. 


Abscondo, 


abscondere.abscondi 


, abscondltum 


, To hide. 


Strido, 


stridere, 


strldi, 


! 


To creak. 


Kudo, 


rudere, 


rudi, 





To bray as an ass. 


Sldo ? 26 


sidere, 


sidi, 


GO. 


To sink down. 


Cingo, 


cingere, 


cinxi, 


cinctum, 


To surround. 



19 The Compounds of Icedo change ce into i: as, allido y allisi, allU 
sum. to dash against. 

20 The Compounds of vddo have the Perfect and Supine : as, 

evzdo, evasiy evasum, to escape. 

21 The Compounds of tundo have tudi, and tusum : as, contundo } 
to bruise, contudi, contusum. See § 80, Rule 2. Some of the 
Compounds have also, a Perfect Participle formed from tunsum: as, 
obtunsus, and retunsus, from obtundo, and reiundo. 

22 The Compounds of cado, want the Supine : as, accido, accidi, to 
happen; except incido } incldi, incdswn, to fall in; occido, occidi, oc- 
cdsiim, to fall down; and recido, recidi, recdsum, to fall back. 

23 The Compounds of crrdo, change a into i: as, accido, accidi, 
accisum, to cut about; decido, decidi. declsum, to cut off. 

24 The Compounds of tendo have generally tentum in the Supine, 
except extendo, to stretch out, and ostendo, to show, which have also 
tensum; the latter, almost always. 

25 The other Compounds of do which belong to the Third Conju- 
gation have also dldi, and ditum : as, condo, condidi, conditum, to 
build. Abscondo has sometimes abscondldi. See page 156, Note 1. 

26 The Compounds of sido, adopt the Perfect and Supine of sedeo: 
as, consido, consedi, consessum, to sit down. 



164 



PHETERITES AND SUPINES. 



§81 



Pres. 


Inf. 


Fligo,* 5 


fligere, 


Jungo, 


jungere, 


Lingo, 


iingere, 


Mungo, 


mungere, 


PJango, 


plangere, 


Rego, 2 ?, 


regere, 


S tinguo, 28 


stinguere. 


Sugo, 


sugere, 


Tego, 


tegere, 


Tinguo, 


tinguere, 


Unguo, 


unguere, 


Surgo, 


surgere, 


Pergo, 
Stringo, 


pergere, 
stringere, 


T ingo, 


fingere, 


Pingo, 
Frango, 29 , 
Ago, 30 
Tango, 


pingere, 
frangere, 
agere, 
tangere, 


Lego, 31 

Pungo, 32 

Pango, 33 


legere, 

pungere, 

pangere, 



Per/, 

flixi, 

junxi, 

linxi, 

munxi, 

planxi, 

rexi, 

stinxi, 

suxi, 

texi, 

tinxi, 

unxi, 

surrexi, 

perrexi, 

strinxi, 

finxi, 

pinxi, 

fregi, 

egi, 

tetlgi, 

legf, 

pupugi, 

panxi, 



Sup. 
flictum, 
junctum, 
linctum, 
munctum, 
planctum, 
rectum, 
stinctum, 
suctum, 
tectum, 
tinctum, 
unctum, 
surrectum, 
perrectum, 
strictum, 
fictum, 
pictum, 
fractum, 
actum, 
tactum, 
lectum, 
punctum, 
pactum, 



To dash. 
To join. 
To lick. 
To wipe the nose. 
To beat. 
To rule. 
To dash out. 
To suck. 
To cover. 
To dip. 
To anoint. 
To rise. 
To go forward 
To bind. 
To feign. 
To paint. 
To break. 
To do,to drive. 
To touch. 
To gather, to read. 
To prick. 
To drive in. 



26 The Compounds of fligo are conjugated in the same way, except 
profilgo, to dash down, which is a regular Verb of the First Conju- 
gation. 

27 The Compounds of r^o change e into i: as, dingo, direxi,di- 
rectunij to direct ; corrigo, correxi, cor rectum, to correct. 

28 Stinguo, tinguo, and unguo, are also written stingo, tingo, ungo. 

29 The Compounds of frango and tango change a into i: as, con- 
fringo, confregi, confractum, to break to pieces; attingo, attigi 7 at- 
tactum, to touch gently. 

30 Circumago, to drive round; perdgo, to finish; and coago, (con- 
tracted cogo,) to collect, retain the «;the other Compounds change a 
into i: as, ablgo, abegi, abactum, to drive away. Dego (for deago,) to 
live, to dwell; prodigo, to lavish or squander; and satago, to be busy, 
want the Supine. Ambigo, to doubt, has neither' Perfect nor Supine. 

31 LZgo, when compounded with ad, per, prcc, re, and sub, retains 
the e: as, alltgo, to choose. The other Compounds change e into i: 
as, colligo, to collect. Diligo, to love; intdllgo, to understand, and 
negligo, to neglect, have, exi and ectum. Negligo has sometimes 
neglcgi in the Perfect. 

32 The Compounds of pungo have punxi in the Perfect : as com- 
pungo, to sting, compunxi, compunctum. Repungo, to prick again, 
has repupugi, and repunxi. 

33 Pango, in the sense of to bargain has pepfgi; the Present is 
rarely used in this meaning; but instead of it paciscor is commonly 
employed. The Compounds which change a into i have ptgi, and 
pactum : as, compingo, to fasten together, compegi, compactum. Op 



§81 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



166 



Pres* 



Inf 



Perf 



Supine. 



Spargo, 3i 
Mergo, 
Terso, 
Figo, 


spargere, 
mergere, 
tergere, 
figere, 


sparsi^ 
mersi, 
tersi, 
fixi, 


sparsum, 
mersum, 
tersam, 
fixum, 


To spread. 
To dip) to plunge* 
To wipe. 
To fix. 


Frigo, 


frigere, 


frixi, 


J frixum, or 
I frictum, 


Tofry. 


Vergo, 
Clango, 
Ningo, 
Ango, 


tergere, 
clangere, 
ningere, 
angere, 






To lie toward* 
To sound a trum* 
To snow. [pet* 
To vex. 


clanxi, 

ninxi, 

anxi, 














HO. 






Tr&ho, 

Veho, 

Mejo, 3d 


tfahere, 
vehere, 
mejere, 


traxi, 
vexi, 
minxi, 

LO. 


tractum, 
vectum, 
mictum, 


To draw. 
To carry. 
To make water* 


Colo ,36 
Consulo, 


colere, 
consulere, 


colui, 
consului, 


cultum, 
consultum, 


To tilt, to inhabit 
To consult. 


Alo, 


alere, 


alui, 


J alltum, or 
( altum, 
moll turn, 


To nourish* 


M6lo, 

A Tifppplln 


molere, 
37 antecellere 
pellere, 
failere, 
vellere, 
sallere, 
psallere, 
tollere, 


molui, 
, antecellui, 
pepuli, 
fefelli, 
velli, or villi 
salli, 
psalli, 
sustuli, 


To grind. 

To excel. 

To drive away* 

To deceive. 

To pull. 

To salt.[ strument. 

To play on an in* 

To lift up. 


Pello, 
Fallows 
Velio, 39 
Sallo, 
Psillo 


pulsum, 

falsum, 

si, vulsum, 

salsum, 


JL oanu ■ 

Tollo,40 


sublatum, 



pango, to fasten to, has also pegi and pactum. Of the other Com- 
pounds which retain a, the Perfect and Supine are not found. 

34 The Compounds of spargo change a into e : as, aspergo, asper* 
si, aspersum, to besprinkle. 

35 Mingo is also used as the Present of minxi. 

36 Colo , when compounded with ob, changes o, into u : occulo, to 
hide. JlccolO) to dwell near, and circumcolo, to dwell round, have 
no Supine. 

37 The other Compounds of the obsolete cello likewise want the 
Supine ; except percello, perculi, perculsum, to strike, to astonish. 
Recello likewise wants the Perfect. 

38 Refello, refelli, to confute, wants the Supine. 

39 Velio, when compounded with de, di, or per, has usually velli 
in the Perfect. The other Compounds take either form indifferently. 

40 Attollo and entollo, to raise up, have no Perfect or Supine of 
their own ; but those of afftro and effero, which agree with them in 
meaning, are sometimes assigned to them 



166 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



§81 







MO. 






Pres 


Inf. 


Per/. 


Sup. 




Fremo, 


fremere, 


fremui, 


fremltum, 


To rage, to roar. 


Gemo, 


gemere, 


gemui, 


gemltum, 


To groan. 


VOmo, 


vomere, 


vomui, 


vomltum, 


To vomit. 


Tremo, 
Demo, 


tremere j 
demere, 


tremui, 
dempsi. 




To tremble. 
To take away. 


dempium, 


Promo, 


promere, 


prompsi, 


promptum, 


To bring out. 


Sumo, 


sumere, 


sumpsi, 


sumptum, 


To take. 


Como, 
£mo, 41 


comere, 


compsi, 


comptum, 


To deck, to dress. 


emere, 


emi, 


emptum, 


To buy. 


Premo, 42 


premere, 


pressi, 

NO. 


pressum, 


To press. 


Pono, 


ponere, 


posui, 


posltum, 


To place. 


Gigno, 


gignere, 


genui, 


genltum, 


To beget. 


Cano, 43 


canere, 


ceclni, 


cantum, 


To sing. 


Temno, 44 
Sperno, 


temnere, 
spernere, 






To despise. 
To disdain 


sprevi, 


spretum, 


Sterno, 45 


sternere, 


stravi, 


stratum, 


To lay flat 


Slno, 


sinere, 


sivi, or sii, 


sltum, 


To permit. 


Lino, 


linere, 


Hvi, or levi, 


lltum, 


To anoint. 


Cerno, 46 


cernere, 


crevi, 


ere turn, 


To see. to deeres 






PO, QUO. 




Carpo, 47 


carpere, 


carp si, 


carptum, 


To pluck. 


Clepo, 


clepere, 


clepsi, 


cleptum, 


To steal. 


Repo, 


repere, 


repsi. 


reptum, 


To creep. 


Scalpo, 


scalpere, 


scalpsi, 


scalptum, 


To engrave. 


Sculpo, 


sculpere, 


sculpsi, 


sculptum, 


To carve. 


Serpo, 


serpere, 


serpsi, 


serptum, 


To creep. 



41 Demo j promo, and sumo, are Compounds of emo. The other 
Compounds change e into i, and are conjugated like the Simple Verb : 
as, adimo, ademi, ademptum, to take away. 

42 The Compounds of prtmo change e into i : as, comprimo, com m 
pressi, compressum, to press together. 

43 The Compounds of cdno have cinui, and centum ; as, concino, 
concinui, concentum, to sing in concert. Of acclno, to sing to, and 
intercino, to sing between, or during, no Perfect or Supine is found. 

44 Contemno, to despise, has contempsi, contemptum. 

46 Consterno and externo, when they signify to alarm, are regular 
Verbs of the First Conjugation. The other Compounds are conju- 
gated like sterno : as, insterno, instravi, instratum, to spread upon. 

46 The Perfect crevi is used in the sense of to declare one's self 
heir, or enter on an inheritance. In the sense of seeing-, cerno has 
properly neither Perfect nor Supine. 

47 The Compounds of carpo change a into e: as, discerpo, dis- 
cerpsii discerpium, to tear in pieces. 



§81 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



167 



Pres. 


Inf. 


Per/. 


Sup. 




Strepo, 


strepere, 


strepui, 


strep I turn, 


Tomakeanouu 


Rumpo, 


rumpere, 


rupi, 


ruptum, 


To break. 


Coquo, 


coquere, 


coxi, 


coctum, 


To boil. 


Linquo, 48 


linquere, 


Hqui, 

RO 




To have. 


Quaero, 49 


quaerere, 


quassivi, 


quaesitum, 


To seek. 


Tero, 


terere, 


trivi , 


trltum, 


To wear. 


Verro ; 


verrere, 


verri, 


versum, 


To sweep. 


Uro, 


urere, 


ussi, 


ustum, 


To burn. 


Curro,50 


currere, 


cucurri, 


cursum, 


To run. 


Gero, 


gerere. 


gessi, 


gestum, 


To carry. 


Furo, 51 


furere. 








To be mad. 


Sero ; 52 


serere, 


sevi, 

SO. 


satum, 


To sow. 


Arcesso, 


arcessere, 


arcessivi, 


arcessitum, 


To call, or send 


Capesso, 


capessere, 


capessivi, 


capessitum, 


To take, [for. 


Facesso, 


facessere, 


facessivi, 


facessitum, 


To do, go away. 


Lacesso, 


lacessere, 


lacesshi, 


lacessitum, 


To provoke. 


Vlso, 


visere, 


visi, 





To go to visit. 


Incesso, 


incessere, 


incessi, 





To attack. 


Depso, 


depsere, 


depsui, 


depstum, 


To knead. 


Pinso, 


pinsere, 


( pinsui, or S 
\ pins', ) 


pinsum, 
pistum, or 


To bake. 






pinsltum, 








TO. 






Flecto, 


flectere, 


flexi, 


flexum, 


To bend. 


Plecto, 


plectere, 


plexi&plexui 


. plexum, 


To plait. 


Necto, 


nectere, 


nexi & nexui 


, nexum, 


To tie or knit. 


Pecto, 


pectere, 


pexi &pexui 


, pexum, 


To dress, or 


Me to, 


metere, 


messui, 


rnessum, 


To reap, [comb. 


Peto, 


petere, 


petivi, 


petltum, 


To seek. 



4S The Compounds of linquo have lictum in the Supine : as, relin* 
quo, rellqui, r dictum, to forsake ; so delinquo, to fail, 

49 The Compounds of qucero change <z into i: as, acqulro, acqux 
sivi, acquisitum, to acquire. 

50 Curro, when compounded with circum, re, sub, and trans, sel 
dom takes the reduplication. The other Compounds sometimes take 
the reduplication, and sometimes not. 

51 See § 84, 4. 

62 The Compounds of sero which retain the sense of planting and 
sowing, have sevi and situm: as, consero, consevi, consitum, to plant 
together. Those which adopt a different signification have serui and 
sertum: as, asstro, asserui, assertum, to claim. The latter class of 
Compounds properly belongs to the old verb sfro, to knit, to plait 



168 



PRETERITES AHD SUPINES. 



§81 



Pres. 


Inf. 


Perf. 


Sup-. 




Mitto, 


mittere, 


misi, 


missum, 


To send. 


Verto/>3 


vertere, 


verti, 


versum, 


To turn. 


Sterto, 


stertere. 


stertui, 





To snore* 


Sisto, 64 


sister e, 


stlti, 


statuin, 


To stop. 






vo, xo. 




Vivo, 


vivere, 


vixi, 


victum, 


To live. 


Solvo, 


solvere, 


solvi, 


solutum, 


To lose. 


Volvo, 


volvere, 


volvi, 


volutum, 


To roll. 


Texo, 


texere, 


texui, 


textam, 


To weave. 



FOURTH CONJUGATION 
Rule. — Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation have tvi in the 
Perfect, and itum in the Supine : as, 



Pres. 


Inf. 




Perf. 




Sup. 




Audio, 


audire, 




audivi, 




auditum, 


To hear. 


Munio, 


munlre, 




munivi, 




muni turn, 


To fortify. 








Exceptions. 




Singultio, 


singular e, 




singultlvi, 




singultum, 


To sob. 


Sepelio, 


sepellre, 




sepelivi, 




sepultum, 


To bury. 


Venio, 


venire, 




v«ni, 




ventum, 


To come. 


Veneo, 1 


venire, 




venii, 







To be sold. 


Salio,2 


sallre, 




salui, orsalii, 


saltum, 


To leap. 


Amicio, 


amicire, 


\ 


amicui, or 
amixi, 




amictum, 


To clothe. 


Vincio, 


vinclre, 




vinxi, 




vinctum, 


To He. 


Sancio, 


sancire, 


\ 


sanxi, or 
sancivi, 


s 


sanctum, or 
sancltum, 


To ratify. 


Cambio, 


cambire, 




campsi, 




camp sum, 


To change mo 


Sepio, 


sepire, 




sepsi, 


i 


septum, 


To enclose. \ney 


Haurio, 


haurire, 




hausi, 


haustum, or 
hausum, 


To draw out, 


Sentio, 


sentire, 




sensi, 




sensum, 


To feel. 


Raucio, 


raucire, 




rausi, 




rausum, 


To be hoarse. 


Sarcio, 


sarcire, 




sarsi, 




sartum, 


To mend, or re- 
[pair. 



53 The Compounds of verto are conjugated in the same manner, 
except revertor, to return, which is often used as a Deponent Verb; 
and divertor to turn aside, and prcevertor, to outrun, which are like- 
wise Deponent, but want the Perfect Participle. 

64 Sisto, to stand still (a neuter ^erb,) has neither Perfect nor Su- 
pine. The Compounds have stiti, and stitum : as, assisto, astiti^ as» 
titum, to stand by. But these are seldom found in the Supine. 

1 For the Conjugation of veneo, see page 173. 

2 The Compounds of salio have generally silui, sometimes silii, or 
silivi, in the Perfect, and sultum in the Supine: as, transUio, transu 
lui, transilii, or transilivi, transultum, to leap over. Absultum i cir- 
cumsultum 3 and prosultum, are scarcely used. 



$82 



DEPONENT PARTICIPLES. 



169 



Farcio, 3 


farclre, 


farsi, 


fartum, 


To cram. 


Fulcio, 


fulcire, 


fulsi, 


fultum, 


To prop. 


Ferio, 


ferire, 








To strike, 



The following Verbs have the Perfect formed regularly, but want 
the Supine : 



Caecutio, to be dim-sighted. 
Dernentio, to be mad. 
Ferocio, to be fierce. 
Glocio, to cluck as a hen. 



Gestio. to show one 7 s joy by the 

gestures of the body. 
Ineptio, to play the fool. 



For Desiderative Verbs which belong to his Conjugation, sec 
§ 88. 3. 



§ 82. LIST OF DEPONENT VERBS IRREGULAR IN 
THE PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 

Pule. — Deponent and common verbs form ihe per- 
fect participle in the same manner as if the active voice ex- 
isted, § 72. Ols. 3. 

To this rule there are na exceptions in the First con- 
jugation. 

EXCEPTIONS IN THE SECOND CONJUGATION 



Reor, 


reri, 


ratus, 


To think. 


Miser eor, l 


misereri, 


misertus, 


To pity. 


Fateor. 2 


fateri, 


fassus, 


To confess. 


Medeor, mederi, 

EXCEPTIONS IIS 




To heal 
CONJUGATION. 


t THE THIRD 


Labor, 


labi, 


lapsus. 


To slide. 


U lei scor, 


uiciscr, 


ultus, 


To revenge. 


Utor, 


uti, 


usus, 


To use. 


L<5quor, 8 


loqui, 


loquutus, 


To speak. 


Sequor, 


sequi, 


sequutus. 


Tofollow. 


Queror, 


queri, 


questus, 


To complain. 



3 The Compounds of farcio change a into e: as, refer cio f refersi, 
refertum, to fill up. 

1 Misereor has also miseritus in the Perfect Participle. 

2 The Compounds of fdteor change a into i, and havefessus: as, 
confiteor, confessus, to confess. Diffiteor, to deny, wants the Perf. 
Participle. 

3 Loquor and stquor have likewise locutus and secutus in the Per- 
fect Participle. 

15 



17U 


IRREGU 


LAR VERBS. 


9 «3 


Nitor, 4 


niti, 


nisus, or nixus, 


To strive. 


Paciscor. 


pacisci, 


pactus, 


To bargain* 


Gradior, 


gradi, 


gressus, 


To go. 


Proficiscor, 


proficisci, 


profectus, 


To go a journey 


Nanciscor, 


nancisci, 


nactus, 


To obtain. 


Patior, 


pati, 


passus, 


To suffer. 


Apiscor. 5 


apisci, 


apius, 


To get. 


Comminiscor, comminisci, 


eommentus, 


To devise . 


Fruor, 


ftrir, 


frultus, or fructus, To enjoy, 


Obliviscor, 


oblivisci, 


oblltus, 


To forget. 


Expergiscor, expergisci, 


experrectus, 


To awake. 


Morior, 6 


mori , 


mortuus, 


To die. 


Nascor, T 


nasei, 


natus, 


To be born. 


Orior, 8 


oriri, 


ortus, 


To rise. 


The following Verbs want the Perfect Participle : 


Defetiscor, 


-i, to be weary. 


Reminiscoi 


', -i, to remember. 


Irascor, -i, 


to he angry. 


Ringor, -i, 


to grin like a dog. 


Liquor, -i, 


to melt. 


Veseor, -i, 


to feed. 



EXCEPTIONS IN THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

Metior, metiri, mensus, To measure. 

Ordior, ordiri, orsus, To begin. 

Experior, experiri, expertus, To try. 

Opperior, opperiri, opertus, To wait 



$ 83. IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Irregular Verbs are those in which some of the secon- 
dary parts are not formed from the primary, according to the 
rules for regular verbs, 

4 Nitor, when compounded with con, in, ob, re, sub, has nixus 
oftener than nisus. Adnltor, to lean to, has either indifferently. 
Enitor, in the sense of to bring forth, generally takes enixa in the 
Participle. 

5 Adipiscor and indipiscor, to obtain, have adeptus and indeptus. 

6 Morior seems to have originally belonged to the Fourth Conjuga- 
tion. The Infinitive moriri occurs in Plautus and Ovid ; and mori' 
mur, with the penult long, is also found. The Imperative is morgre. 
This verb, with nascor and orior, has iturus in the Fut. Part.: as 
moriturus, nasciturus, oriturus. 

7 Nascor is Passive in signification, but has no active voice 

8 Orior has orlre, and always oriretur in the Imperfect Subjunc- 
tive, according to the Fourth Conjugation. Likewise in the Com- 
pounds adoriretur, exoriretur; and not adoreretur, exoreretur. The 
Present follows the Third, though oriris and oritur, with the penult 
long, are also found. 



§83 IRREGULAR VERBS. 171 

The irregular verbs are six ; namely, sum, eo, queo, volo, 
fero, and fio. Their compounds are irregular, also. 

Sum has been already inflected, § 54. After the same 
manner are inflected its compounds, ad-, ab-, de-, inter-, ob- y 
prce-, sab-, supersum; as, adsum, adesse, adfui, &c. Insum 
wants the preterite. 

1. Prosum, to do good, inserts d where the simple verb 
begins with e. It is inflected thus. 

Prosum, prodesse, profui, To do good. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Prosum, prodes, prodest, prosumus, prodestis, prosunt. 
Imp. Prod-eram, -eras, -erat, -eramus, -eratis, -erant. 

Perf. Profu-i, -isti, -it, -lmus, -istis, \ "° _ ' 

1 ' ( or-ere. 

Plup. Profu-eram, -eras, -erat, -eramus, -eratis, -erant. 

Fut. Prod-ero, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis, -erunt. 

F. P. Profu-ero, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Pro-sim, -sis, -sit, -simus, -sitis, -sint. 
Imp. Prod-essem, -esses, -esset, -essemus,-essetis,-essent. 
Perf. Profu-erim, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 
Plup. Profu-issem, -isses, -isset, -issemus, -issetis, -issent. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. 2. Prod-es, or prod-esto, 2. Prod-este, or prod-estote, 
3. Prod-esto ; 3. Pro-sunto. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Prod-esse, Fut. Esse pro-futurus, -a- urn, 

Perf. Pro-fuisse, F. P. Fuisse pro-futurus, -a, -urn. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Pro-futurus,-a, -um. 



2. Possum is compounded of potts, " able," and sum, " I 
am." It is thus inflected. 

Possum, posse, potui, I can, lam able. 



172 



IRREGULAR VERBS/ 



§83 

INDICATIVE MOOD, 

Pres. Possum, potes, potest; possumus, potestis, possunt. 
Imp. Pot-eram, -eras, -erat, -eramus, -eratis, -erant. 



Perf. 


Potu~i 3 -isti, 


-it, 


-imus, 


-istis, < 


i -erunt, 
[ or -ere» 


Plttp. 


Potu-eram,-eras, 


-erat 5 


-eramus, 


-eratis 


-erant. 


FUT. 


Pot-ero, -erisj 


-erit, 


-erimus, 


-eritis, 


-erunt. 


F. P. 


Potu-ero, -eris, 


-erit, 


-erimus, 


-eritis, 


-erint. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Pos-sim, -sis, -sit ? -simus, -sitisj -sint. 

Imp. Pos-sem, -ses, -set, -s£mus, -setis, -sent. 

Perf. Potu-erim, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis, -erint* 

Plup. Potu-issem, -isses, -isset, -issemus, -issetis, -issent. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Perf. Potuisse, the rest wanting. 



Pres. Posse. 
8. Eo, 



Pr. Eo, is, 



ire, 



ivi, 



itum, To go. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



it; 



imus, 



itis, 



eunt. 



Imp. Ibam, ibas, ibat; ibamus, ibatis, ibant. 

Per. Ivi, ivisti, ivit ; ivimus, ivistis, iverunt or ivSre. 

Pjlu. Iveram, iveras,iverat; iveramus,iveratis,iverant. 

Fut. Ibo, ibis, ibit; ibimus, ibitis, ibunt. 

F. P. Ivero 7 iveris, iverit ; iverimus,iveritis, iv erint. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Earn, eas, eat; eamus, eatis, eant. 

Imp. Irem, ires, iret; iremus, iretis, irent. 

Per. Iverim, iveris, iverit; iverimus, iveritis, iverint. 

Plu. Ivissem, ivisses, ivisset; ivissemus, ivissetis, ivissent. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
t> < I, .. ( ite, , Pr. Ire. 

PK -ilto, lto; iitOte, CUDto - Per. Ivisse. 

Fut. Esse iturus, -a, -urn* 



PARTICIPLES. 

Pr. lens, Gen. euntis. 
Fut. Iturus, -a, -um. 



F. P. Fuisse iturus, -a, -um. 
GERUNDS. SUPINES. 

Eundum. 1. Itum* 

Eundi> &c. 2. Itu. 



§ 83 IRREGULAR VERBS. 173 

The compounds of Eo are conjugated after the same man- 
ner; ad-, ah-, ex-, co-, tn-, inter-, 6b-, red-, sub-, per-, 
pirn-, ante-, prod-eo ; only in the perfect, and the tenses 
formed from it, they are usually contracted ; thus, Adeo, adzre, 
adz?, seldom adivi, aditum, to go to ; perf. Adii, adiisti, 
or adhti, &c. adieram, adierim, &c. So likewise veneo, 

venit, , to be sold, (compounded of venum and eo.) But 

ambio, -Ire, -tvi, -ttuni, to surround, is a regular verb of 
the fourth conjugation. 

Eo, like other neuter verbs, is often rendered in English 
under a passive form ; thus, it, he is going 5 wit, he is gone ; 
iverat, he was gone; iverit, he may be gone, or shall be 
gone. So, venit, he is coming ; venit, he is come ; vene- 
rat, he was come, &c. In the passive voice these verbs for 
the most part are used only impersonally ; as, itur ah illo, 
he is going ; ventum est ah Mis, they are come. We find 
some of the compounds of eo, however, used personally ; as, 
pericula adeuntur, — are undergone. Cic. Libri sibyllini 
aditi sunt, — were looked into. Liv. Fluraen pedtbus trans- 
%ri potest. Caes. Inimiciiice subeantur. Cic. 

Queo, I can, and Nequeo, I cannot, are conjugated the 
same way as eo ; only they want the imperative and the ge- 
runds ; and the participles are seldom used. 

4. Volo, velle, volui, To will, to be willing, to wish. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Vol-o, vis, vult ; voliimus, vultis, volunt. 
Imp. Vol-ebam, -ebas, -ebat; -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant. 

Per. Volu-i, -isti, -it; -imus, -istis, < . ' 

\ I or -ere. 

Flu. Volu-eram,-eras, -erat; -eramus, -eratis, -erant. 

Fut. Vol-am, -es, -et; -emus, -etis, -ent. 

F. P. Volu-ero, -eris, -erit; -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Velim, velis, velit; velimus, velitis, velint. 

Imp. Vellem, velles, vellet; vellemus, velletis, vellent. 
Per, Volu-erim, -eris, -erit; -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 
Plu. Volu-issem,-isses. -isset; -issemus, -issetis, -issent. 

15* 



174 IRREGULAR VERBS. § 83 

INFINITIVE MOOD. PARTICIPLES. 

Pr. Velle. Perf. Voluisse. Pkes. Volens. 



5. Nolo, nolle, nolui. To be unwilling. [From non voloJ\ 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Pr. Nolo, non-vis, non-vult;nolumus, non-vultis, nolunt. 
Imp. Nol-ebam, -ebas, -ebat, 

Per. Nolu-i, -isti, -it; 

Plu. Nolu-eram,-eras, -erat; 
Fut. Nol-am, -es, -et; 
F. P. Nolu-ero, -eris, -erit; 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Nolim, nolis, nolit ; nolimus, nolitis, nolint. 

Imp. Nollem, nolles, nollet; nollemus, nolletis, nollent. 

Per. Nolu-erim, -eris, -erit; -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 

Plu. Nolu-issem,-isses, -isset; -issemus, -issetis, -issent. 

IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 

p ( Noli or ( nolite or Pr. Nolle. Pr. Nolens. 

Nolito. ( nolitote. Per. Noluisse. The rest wanting. 



-ebamus,-ebatis, 


-ebant. 


-imus, -istis, 


( -erunt. 
\ or -ere. 


-eramus, -eratis, 


-erant. 


-emus, -etis, 


-ent. 


-erimus, -eritis, 


-erint. 



6. Malo, malle, malui. To be more loilling. [Magis volo.'] 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Mal-o, mavis, mavult; malumus, mavultis, malunt. 

Imp. Mal-ebam, -ebas, -ebat; -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant. 

Per. Malu-i, -isti, -it ; -imus, -istis, < " _ 

' ■ I or -ere. 

Plu. Malu-eram, -eras, -erat; -eramus, -eratis, -erant. 

Fut. Mal-am, -es, -et ; -emus, -etis, -ent. 

F. P. Malu-ero, -eris, -erit; -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Malim, malis, malit ; malimus, malitis, malint. 

Imp. Mallem, malles, mallet ; mallemus, malletis, mallent. 
Per. Malu-erim, -eris, -erit ; -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 
Plu. M alu-issem,-isses, -isset ; -issemus, -issetis, -issent. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pr. Malle. Per. Maluisse. The rest not used. 



§ 83 IRREGULAR VERBS. 175 

7. Fero, ferre, tiili, latum. To carry, to bring, or suffer. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD 

Pr. Fero, fers, fert ; ferimus, fertis, ferunt. 

Imp. Fer-ebam, -ebas, -ebat ; -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant. 

Per. Tul-i, -isti, -it; -lmus, -istis, < _ ' 

' ( or -ere. 

Plu. Tul-eram, -eras, -erat; -eramus, -eratis, -erant. 

Fut. Fer-am, -es, -et ; -emus, -etis, -ent. 

F. P. Tul-ero, -eris, -erit ; -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Fer-am, -as, -at ; -amus, -atis, -ant. 

Imp. Fer-rem, -res, -ret ; -remus -retis, -rent. 

Per. Tul-erim, -eris, -erit; -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 

Plu. Tul-issem, -isses, -is set ; -issemus, -issetis, -issent. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Pr. Fer, or ferto, ferto ; ferte, or ferto te, ferunto, 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Ferre. Fut. Esse laturus, -a, -um. 

Per. Tulisse. F. P. Fuisse laturus, -a, -um. 

PARTICIPLES. GERUNDS. SUPINES. 

Pr. Ferens. IV. Ferendum, 1. Latum. 

Fut. Laturus, -a, -um. G. Ferendi, &c. 2. Latu. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Feror, ferri, latus. To be brought. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Pr Feror, 1 rf^rre \ fertur 5 ferlmur, ferimini, feruntur. 

Imp Fer-ebar, < " eb ^is / .ehatur: -ebamur, -ebamini, -ebantur. 

' ( or -ebare, ) ' 

Per. Latus sum, or fui, latus es, or fuisti, Sec. 

Plu. Latus eram, or fueram. latus eras, or fueras, Sec. 

Fut. Ferar, \ iereris / feretur : feremur, fere mini, ferentur. 
\ or ferere, > ' ■ 

F P. Latus fuero : latus fueris, &c. 



176 IRREGULAR VERBS. § 83 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. . 

Pr Ferar, £ or* ferlre, $ feratur 5 feramur, feramini, ferantur. 

Imp. Ferrer, < ferr^re* ^ \ ferr§tur ? ferr eniur,ferremini,feTrentTiT. 
Per. Latus sim, or fuerim, latus sis, or fueris, &c. 
Plu. Latus essem, or fuissem, lalus esses, or fuisses, &c. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Ferre, or fertor, fertor ; ferimmi, feruntor. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. PARTICIPLES. 

Pr. Ferri. Per. Latus, -a, -um. 

Per. Esse, or fuisse latus, -a, -um. Fut. Ferendus, -a, -um. 
Fut. Latum iri. 

In like manner are conjugated the compounds of fero; as, 
affero, attuli,o2ldtum ; aufero, abstuli, ablatum ; differo, 
distuli, dilatum; confero, contuli, colldtum ; infero, intuit, 
illatum ; offero, obtuli, obldtum ; effero, extuli, datum. 
So, circum-, per-, trans-, de-, pro-, ante-, pra-, re-fero. 
In some writers we find adfero, adtuli, adlatum ; conldtum; 
inldtum ; obfero, &c. foroffero, &c. 

Obs. 1. Most part of the above verbs are made irregular 
by contraction. Thus, nolo is contracted for non volo ; malo 
for magis volo ; fero, fers, fert, &c. for feris, ferit, &c. 
Feror, ferris or ferre, fertur, for ferreris, &c. 



8. Fio, fieri, factus. To be made, or done, to become. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Pr. Fio, fis, fit; fimus,- fitis, fiunt. 

Imp. Fiebam, fiebas, fiebat; fiebamus, fiebatis, fiebant. 
Per. Factus sum, or fui, factus es, or fuisti, &c. 
Plu. Factus eram, or fueram, factus eras, or fueras, &c. 
Fut. Fiam, fies, fiet ; fiemus, fietis, fient. 
F. P. Factus fuero, factus fueris, &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Fiam, fias, fiat; fiamus, fiatis, fiant. 
Imp. Fierem, fieres, fieret ; fieremus, fieretis, fierent. 
Per. Factus sim, or fuerim, factus sis, or fueris, &c. 
Plu. Factus essem, or fuissem, factus esses, or fuisses, &c. 



§ 83 IRREGULAR VERBS. 177 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Pr - flito, fito: [fiSte, fiunt0 - 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Fieri, 

Per. Esse, or fuisse factus, -a, -urn. 

Fut. Factum iri. 

PARTICIPLES SUPINE. 

Per. Factus, -a, -um. 2. Factu. 

Fut. Faciendus, -a, -um. 

Obs. 2. The third person singular of fio is often used im- 
personally ; as, fit, " it happens" fiebat, " it happened". 

Obs. 3. Fio is used as the passive of facio, from which it 
takes the participles. The compounds of facio which retain 
a have fio in the passive $ as, calefacio, " I warm," calefio 
" I become warm," " I am warmed," &c. But those com- 
pounds which change facio into ficio have the regular pas- 
sive mficior, as, conficio, conficior, &c. 

9. To irregular verbs may be added Edo, u to eat." 
Though this is a regular verb of the third conjugation, it 
has an irregular form resembling sum in the Pres. Indicative, 
Imperfect Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Present Infi- 
nitive, thus; 

Edo, edere or esse, edi, esum, To eat. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Edo, \ e S> e \ edimus, ) e . ls \ edunt. 

( or es, or est, ' ( or estis, 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

j { Ederem, ederes, ederet, ederemus, ederetis, ederent; 
( or essem, esses, esset, essemus, essetis essent. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Pres \ Ed *' or edlto ' ed * to ' ed * te ' ° r ed * tote > X edunto. 
( Es, or esto, esto; este, or estote, ) 



178 DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 84 

§ 84. DEFECTIVE VERBS, 

Defective Verbs are those which are not used in some 
of their parts. 

1. These three, odi, coepi, and memini, are used only in 
the preterite tenses, that is, in the perfect,and the tenses de- 
rived from it, and for this reason are called Preterite 
Verbs. 

Obs. 1. Coepi has a present as well as a perfect significa- 
tion ; and hence cceperam, has the sense of the imperfect, as 
well as of the pluperfect ; and ccepero, of the future as well 
as of the future perfect; thus, ccepi, " I begin" or "I have 
begun;" coeperam, "I began" or "I had begun;" ccepero, 
" I shall begin" " I shall have begun ;" and so of the sub- 
junctive. 

Obs. 2. Odi and memini have only the present, imperfect, 
and future sense; as, odi, "I hate;" oderam, "I hated;" 
odero, " I will hate." 

2. The parts of these verbs in use are as follows ; viz: 
Odi, oderam, odero, oderim, odissem, odisse. 

Participles, osus, osurus. 
Coepi, coeperam, coepero, coeperim, coepissem, coepisse. 

Participles, coeptus, coepturus. 
Memini, memineram, meminero, meminerim, meminissem, 
meminisse. Imperative, memento, mementote. 

3. The verb novi is also used as a preterite, having like 
odi and memini only the sense of the present, the imperfect, 
and future. It differs from the others, however, in having a 
present, nosco, which properly has an inceptive sense, mean- 
ing " I begin to know," " I learn ;" hence novi, " I have 
learned," that is " I know." 

The parts of novi in use, are as follows ; viz, 

Novi, noveram, novero, noverim, novissem, novisse; 
Contracted, nor am, ndrim, ntssem, nosse* 

4. There are many verbs not usually considered among 
defectives which want certain tenses or numbers or persons ; 
thus, do " I give," has neither dor nor der. Fari to speak, 
with its compounds, is used only by the poets, and by them 
chiefly in the third person ; fatur, the imperative fare, and 
the participle fa tus. The ablative gerund, fando, occurs in 
a passive sense. 



§ 84 DEFECTIVE VERBS* 179 

Furore, to be mad, wants the first pers. sing, and the se- 
cond pers. pi. of the pres. and probably all the future of the 
indicative 5 and the imperative, also the Perfect and Supine. 

5. The following defective verbs are those which most 
frequently occur. Aio "I say;" — inquam, t# I say," used 
only between words quoted, and never stands at the begin- 
ning ; — -forem, "I should be;" the same as essem; — axe, and 
salve "hail;" Cedo, " tell thou," or " give me ;" quceso, " I 
beseech," originally the same as qacero. It is used common- 
ly as an interjection. 

The parts of these verbs remaining are the following. 

1. Aio, I say, I affirm. 

Ind. PttE9. Aio, ais, ait, ■ *• aiunt. 

Imp. Aiebam, aiebas, aiebat, aiebamus, aiebatis, aiebant. 

Perf. aisti, ait, 

Sub. Pres. aias, aiat, ■ aiant. 

Imp. Pres. ai, - ■ 

Part. Pres. aiens, 

2. Inquam, " I say." 
Ind. Pres. Inquam, inquis, inquit; inquimus, inqultis, inquiunt. 

Imp. , inquiebat; inquebanL 

Per. inquisti, inquit; ■ 

Fut. ■ inquies, inquiet; 

Imp. Pres. inque, inqulto; inqulte, — 

Por^.pRES. inquiens. 

3. Forem, I should be. 

Sub. Imp. Forem, fores, foret, forent. 

Inf. Fut. Fore, to be about to be, same nsfuturumesse. 

4. Ave, Li hail." 
Imp. Pres. Ave, or aveto ; avete, or avetote. 

Inf. Pres. Avere. 

5. Salve, hail. 
Ind. Fut. Salvebis. 

Imp. Pres. Salve, or salve to, salvete, or salvetote. 

Inf. Pres. Salvere. 

6. Cedo, tell, give. 

Imp. Pres. Cedo, cedo, or cedlte, contracted cette. 

7. Qumso, I beseech. 

Ind. Pres. Quaeso, , , quaesumus, , . 

6. Ausim,faxim, and faxo, sometimes called defective verbs are 
properly old forms of tenses; Ausim being put for auserim, from 
audeo, to dare ; and faxim, and faxo, fech'im and fectro from facio. 
So also age and agite, " come," are imperatives from ago in a some- 
what different sense, just as ave, " hail," is an imperative from aveo , 
" to be well." 



ISO 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 



§85 



§ 85. IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

1. Impersonal Verbs are those which are used only in the 
third person singular, and do not admit of a personal subject 
or nominative before them. 

2. Impersonal verbs when translated literally into English, 
have before them the neuter pronoun it ; as, delectat, " it de- 
lights," decet, " it becomes," contingit, " it happens " evenit, 
-' it comes to pass ;"&c. They are inflected thus, 



1st. Conj. 2d Conj. 

Ind. Pre. Delectat, Decet, 

Imp. Delectabat, Decebat, 

Per. Delectavit, Deeuit, 

Plu. Delectaverat, Decuerat, 

Fut. Delectabil, Decebit, 

F. P. Delectaverit. Decuerit. 

Sub Pre. Delectet, Deceat, 

Imp. Delectaret, Deceret, 

Per. Delectaverit, Decuerit, 

Plu. Delectavisset. Decuisset. 



3d. Conj. 

Contingit, 

Contingebat, 

Contlgit, 

Contigerat, 

Continget, 

Contigerit. 



4th Conj. 

Evenit. 

Eveniebat, 

Evenit, 

Evenera*, 

Eveniet, 

Evenerit. 



Contingat, Eveniat, 

Contingeret, Evenlret 

Contigerit, Evenerit, 

Cohtigisset. Evenisset. 



Inf. Pre. Delectare Decere, Contingere, E venire, 

Per. Deleclavisse. Deeuisse. Contigisse. Evenisse. 

3. Most Latin verbs may be used impersonally in the pas- 
sive voice especially Intransitive, or Neuter verbs, which 
otherwise have no passive ; as, pugnatur, " it is fought;" 
favetur, u it is favored;" currltur, " it is run ;" vhiltur, " it 
is come;" from pugno.faveo, curro, and venio. Thus, 

Ind. Pre. Pugnatur Favetur, Currltur, Yenltur, 

Imp. Pugnabatur, Favebatur, Currebatur. Venkbatur, 

Per. Pugnatum est, 1 Fautumest, 1 Cursum est, 1 Yentum est, 1 

Plu. Pugnatum erat 2 Fautum erat 2 Cursumerat 2 Yentum erat 2 

Fut. Pugnabltur, Favebltur, Curretur, Yenietur, 

F. P. Pugnatum erit 3 Fautum erit 3 Cursum erit. 3 Yentum erit, 3 

Sub. Pre. Pugnelur, Faveatur, Curratur, Yenlatur, 

Imp. Pugnaretur, Faveretur, Curreretur, Yeniretur, 
Per. Pugnatum sit, 3 Fautum sit, 3 Cursum sit, 3 Yentum sit, j 
Plu. Pugnatum esset 4 Fautum esset 4 Cursum esset 4 Yentum esset 4 

Inf. Pre. Pug-nfiri, Faveri, Curri, Yeniri, 

Per. Pugnatum esse 5 Fautum esse 6 Cursum esse 5 Yentum esse, 6 
Fut. Pugnatum Iri. Fautum iri. Cursum Iri. Yentum iri. 



1 or fuit. 2 or fuerat. 3 or fuerit. 4 or fuisset. 5 or fuisse. 



§ 85 IMPERSONAL VERBS 181 

4. Grammarians reckon only ten real impersonal verbs, and 
all in the second conjugation; namely 

Decet, decuit, &c. it becomes, it became, &c. 
Libet, libuit, or libitum est, &c. it p'eases, it pleased, &c. 
Licet, licuit, or licitum est, &c. it is lawful, it was lawful, &c. 
MisZret, mislruit, or miseritum est, &c. it pities, it pitied, &c. 
Oportct, oportuit, &c. it behooves, it was incumbent on, &c. 
Piget, piguit, or pigitum est, &c. it grieves, it grieved, &c. 
Poenitet, pocnituit, &c. it repents, it repented, &c. 
Pudet, puduit, pud-it um est, &c. it shames, it shamed, &c. 
Tcedet, tceduit, or tcesum est, &c. it wearies, it wearied, &c. 
Liquet, it appears. This verb has no perfect. 

But many other verbs are used impersonally in all the con- 
jugations. 

5. Under impersonal verbs may be comprehended those 
which express the operations or appearances of nature ; as, 
fulgurat, it lightens 5 fuhmnat, tonat, it thunders ; grandt- 
nat, it hails ; so gelat, plait, nin git, luces cit, advesperascit, &c. 

6. Impersonal verbs are applied to any person or number, 
by putting that which stands before other verbs as their no- 
minative, after the impersonals in the case which they gov- 
ern ; as, 

Placet miki, it pleases me, or I please. 

Placet tibi, it pleases thee, or thou pleasest. 

Placet illi, it pleases him, or he pleases. 

Placet nobis, it pleases us, or we please . 

Placet vobis, it pleases you, or you please. 

Placet illis, it pleases them, or they please. 

So pugnatur a vie, a te, ab illo, &c. It is fought by me, 
by thee, by him; that is, I fight, thou lightest, he figlts; 
&c. Hence, as the meaning of a transitive verb may I?e 
expressed, either by the active or passive voice, so when an 
intransitive verb is translated by a verb considered tran- 
sitive in English, (§ 38. Obs.5.) Ihe English passive form of 
that verb is expressed in Latin, by the passive used imperson- 
ally ; thus, Active, faceo tibi, " I favour you ;" Passively, favS- 
tur tibi a me, "you are favoured by me," and so of others. 

7. Impersonal verbs, not being used in the imperative, take 
the subjunctive in its stead ; as, delect et, " let it delight." In 
the passive voice their participles are used only in the neu- 
ter gender. The gerunds and supines are but seldom used, 



182 OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. f) 86 

§ 86. EXERCISES ON IMPERSONALS. 

[For the meaning of the impersonals used in the following 
exercises, see No. 2. 3. 4. of the preceding section.] 

1. Give the designation, the 'place found, the translation -, 
thus, delectat. A verb impersonal 1st conjugation ; found in 
the present Indicative active ; " it delights." 

Delectabit, decebat, decebit, deceret, contingit, continget, 
contigit, contigerit, evenit, evenit, eveniet, eveniat, pugna- 
batur, pugnatum est, pugnetur, pugnaretur, favetur, fautum 
sit, fautum fuerit, ventum est, ventum erit ; — libet, libuit, 
licitum est, miseret, miseritum est, piget, pudet, fulgiirat, 
tonat, &c. 

2. Give the designation, &c. as in No. 1, and translate as 
the word following the impersonal requires according to 
§ 85. 6. Thus, delectat me. Delectat, a verb impersonal, 1st 
conj. Pres. Ind. Act. " it delights me," or " I delight." 

Delectabit me, te, ilium, nos, vos, illos, — decet vos, dece- 
ret vos, placet tibi, favetur vobis, favebitur nobis, (a te, by 
you,) pugnabitur ab illis, venitur a te, ventum est ab illis, a 
vobis, a nobis, ab illo, a te, a me ; piget me, licet mihi, lice- 
bit vobis, licitum est illis, miseret me, miseruit te, &c. 

3. Render the following English into Latin, by the imper- 
sonals; thus, I delight, delectat me, literally, " it delights 
me." N. B. The noun or pronoun, after miseret, poentiet, 
pudet, tcedet, piget, decet, delectat, and oportet, must be put 
in the accusative, § 113. Exc. II. & III. Other impersonals 
are followed by the dative of the object when they have one; 
and when they express any thing done by another, the agent 
or doer when expressed is put in the ablative preceded by a 
or ab, as in § 85. 6. 

Exercises. — It becomes, it has repented, it is fought, it 
pleases, it is favoured ; it becomes me, I repent, (it repents 
me,) I fight, (it is fought by me,) you are favoured, (it is 
favoured to you,) you are favoured by me, I repented, they 
have repented, you will repent, they are favored by us, by 
you, by me, &c. We are favored by them, by you ; they 
come, (it is come by them,) they have come, we will come 
we run, we will run, if (si,) you please, if they please, it 
was allowed to us, we were allowed, it delights us, or we 
are delighted, they are delighted, it thunders, it lightens, it 
hailed, &c 



§ 87, 88 REDUNDANT AND DERIVATIVE VERBS. 183 

§ 87. REDUNDANT VERBS. 

Redundant Verbs are those which have more than one 
form of the same part, or which have different forms to ex- 
press the same sense ; as, assentio and assentior, to assent 5 
fabrico or fabricor, to frame ; mereo and mereor, to deserve ; 
Edis, and es, " thou eatest 5" edit and est, " he eats 5" from 
edo, &c. 

Redundant verbs in Latin are chiefly those which are 
used in different conjugations ; for example, 

1. Some are usually of the first conjugation, and sometimes 
of the third 5 as, lavo, lavdre, and lavo, lavere, to wash. 

2. Some are usually of the second conjugation, and some- 
times of the third ; as, 

Ferveo ; fervere, and fervo,fervere, to boil. 
Fulgeo,fulgere, and fulgo,fulgere, to shine. 
Strideojstridere, and strido,stridere, to creak, &c« 

3. Some are commonly of the third conjugation, and some* 
times of the fourth j as, 

Fodio,fodere, and fodio ,fodire, to dig. 
SallojSallere, and sallio, sail ire, to salt, &e. 

4. Cito, ciere is commonly of the second conjugation, but 
sometimes it is cio,cire in the fourth, " to stir up." 



§ 88. DERIVATIVE VERBS. 
Verbs are derived either from nouns or from other verbs. 

I. Verbs derived from nouns are called Denominatives; 
as, coeno, to sup ; laudo, to praise ; fraudo, to defraud 5 
lapido, to throw stones ; operor, to work, &c. from coena, 
laus, fraus, lapis, &c. 

But when they express imitation or resemblance they are 
called Imitatives; as, patrisco, Gracor, bubulo, cormcor, &c. 
I imitate or resemble my father, a Grecian, an owl, a crow; 
from pater, Grcecus, bubo, comix. 

II. Verbs derived from other verbs are chiefly the follow- 
ing ; viz. 



184 OF DERIVATIVE VERBS. § 88 

1. Frequentatives. These express frequency of action 
and are all of the first conjugation. They are formed from 
the last supine, by changing dtu into ito, in the verbs of the 
first conjugation, and u into o in verbs of the other three con- 
jugations ; thus, 

Last. Sup. Freq. 

1st, Clamo, to cry ; clamatu, hence clamlto, to cry frequently, 
2d, Terreo, to frighten ; terrltu, . '• lerrl to, to frighten often. 
3d, Verto, to turn; versu, " verso, to turn frequently. 

4th, Dormio, to sleep; dormitu, " dormlto, to sleep often. 

In like manner deponent verbs form frequentatives in or, 
as minor, to threaten; of which in the active voice, the latter 
supine would be minatu, and hence minitor, to threaten fre- 
quently, ever and anon. 

Obs. 1. Some frequentatives are formed in an irregular 
manner ; as, nato, from no; nosczto from nosco; scitor or 
rather sciscitor from scio ; pavito, from paveo ; sector, from 
sequor ; loquitor, from loquor. So qucerito, fundito, agtto, 
fluito, &c. which formed regularly would be qucesito,fuso, 
acto,jluxo, &c. 

Obs. 2. From frequentative verbs are also formed other 
frequentatives; as, curro, cur so, curs? to; pello, pulso, pulsi- 
to, or by contraction pulto; capio, capto, capttto ; cano, canto, 
cantito; defendo, defenso, defensito;dlco, dicto, dictito, &c. 

Obs. 3. Frequentatives do not always express frequency 
of action. Many of them have much the same sense with 
their primitives, or express the meaning with greater force. 

2. Inceptive Veres. These mark the beginning or con- 
tinued increase of an action or state. They are formed by 
adding -co to the second person singular, of the present indi- 
cative 5 thus, 

1st Conj. Labo, labas, Inceptive, labasco. 

2d " Caleo, cales, " calesco. 

3d " Tremo, tremis, " tremisco. 

4th " Obdormio, obdormis, " obdormisco. 

Note. — But all verbs in -sco are not inceptives. Inceptives are al- 
so formed from substantives and adjectives ; as, puerasco, from 
puer ; dulcesco, from dulcis ; juvenesco, from juvenis. 

Obs. 4. All inceptives are intransitives, and of the third 
conjugation. They properly want both the preterite and 



§ 89 OF ADVERBS. 185 

supine, unless very rarely when they borrow them from 
their primitives. 

3. Desiderative Verbs, are those which signify a de- 
sire or intention of doing a thing. They are formed from 
the latter supine by adding -rio, and shortening u ; as, coend- 
turio, " I desire to sup," from coeno, last supine, coendtu. 
They are all of the fourth conjugation, and want both prete- 
rite and supine, except these three ; viz. esurio, esurzre, 
esurtvi, esuritum, to desire to eat $ parturio, parturire, par- 
ticrivi, — to be in travail, and nupturio, nupturtre, nupturtvi, 
— to desire to be married. 

4. Diminutives, which represent an action as little or 
insignificant. They are formed from the present by chang- 
ing o, eo, and io, into -illo, and they are all of the first con- 
jugation ', as, canto, cant illo, conscribo, conscribillo, sorbeo, 
sorbillo. 

5. Some verbs in -SSO are called Intensive 5 as, capesso, 
facesso, petesso, or pet isso, I take, I do, I seek earnestly. 



§ 89. OF ADVERBS. 

An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, an ad- 
jective, or another adverb, to modify or denote some 
circumstance respecting it. 

Adverbs may be considered in respect of Signi- 
fication, Derivation, and Comparison. 

I. THE SIGNIFICATION OF ADVERBS 

In respect of signification, adverbs may be ar- 
ranged in Latin under the following heads : 

1. Adverbs of Place, comprehending those which signify, 

1st. Motion or Rest in a place j as, ubi, where ; hie, here ; illic t 

there j intus, within j /oris, without ; ubique, every where, &c. 
2d. Motion to a place ; as, quo 1 whither -, hue, hither ; illuc, 

isthuc. thither ; eo, to that place ; alio, to another place, &c. 
3d. Motion from a place; as, unde, whence ,* hinc, hence j Wine, 

inde, thence ; superne, from above, &c. 
4th. Motion through or by a place; as, qua ? which way? hoc, this 

way ; alia, another way, &c. 

16* 



186 OF ADVERBS. § 89 

2. Adverbs of Time ; as, nunc, now ; hodie, to-day j turn, then ; 
nuper, lately ; mox, by and by ; semper, always, &c. 

3. Adverbs of Quantity ; as, parum, little ; multum, much j pene y 
almost j quanto, how much, &c. 

4. Adverbs of Quality ; as, bene, well ,• male, ill ; fortiter, 
bravely, and many others derived from adjectives and participles. 

5. Adverbs of Manner, (viz. of action or condition,) including 
those which express exhortation, affirmation, negation, granting , for- 
bidding, interrogation, doubt, contingency, &c. as, prbfectb, truly ; 
non, hand, not ; cur ? why ? quare, wherefore, &c. 

6. Adverbs of Relation, or such as express circumstances of com- 
parison, resemblance, order, assemblage, separation, &c. as, potius } 
rather ; ita, sic, so ; simul, together; seorsum, apart, &c. 

II. DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OF ADVERBS. 

The Simple and Primitive adverbs are but few 
in number ; as, non, not ; ibi, there ; mox, present- 
ly; tunc, then, &c. 

The Derivative Adverbs are numerous, and are 
formed in the following manner: 

1. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the First and Second De- 
clension generally end in e ; as, alte, highly ; from altus ; UbHe, 
freely, from liber. Sometimes they end in o, um, or ter ; as tuto f 
safely, from tutus; tantum, so much, from tantus; dure and durlter % 
hardly, from durus. 

2. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the Third Declension gene- 
rally end in -ter ; as, feliciter, happily, from felix. Sometimes e; 
as, facile, easily, from facilis ; and one ends in o, namely, omnino, 
altogether, from omnis. 

The Neuter gender of adjectives is often used adverbially ; as 
recens, recently, for recenter ; torva, sternly, for torve ; as, dulce ru 
dens, sweetly smiling, &c. 

3. Adverbs derived from nouns, generally end in im or itus ; as, 
virltim, man by man, from vir ; funditus, from the ground, from 
fundus. 

Many adverbs in Am, however are derived from participles ; as, 
sensim, by degrees, from sensus, (sentio, I perceive.) A few in Mus 
are derived from adjectives ; as, antiquitus, from antiquus, &c. 



§ 89 OF ADVERBS. 187 

4. Adverbs are formed by composition in various ways; two or 
more words forming a phrase or part of a sentence, and syntactically 
combined, being formed into one word j as, hodie, to-day, from hoc die; 
scilicet, truly, from scire licet • quomodo, how, from quomodo ; quam- 
obrem. wherefore, from quam ob rem, &c. 

Obs. 1. The adverb is not an essential part of speech. It only 
serves to express in one word what would otherwise have required 
two or more ; as, sapienter, wisely ; for cum sapientia ; semper, al- 
ways, for i,i omni tempore, &c. Indeed similar phrases used to express 
circumstances of time, place, manner, order, and the like, constitute 
what may be called adverbial phrases, or clauses, though the words 
of which they consist, are to be parsed separately, and combined ac- 
cording to the rules of syntax. 

Obs. 2. Some adverbs of time, place and order, are frequently 
used, the one for the other • as, ubi, where or when : inde, from that 
place, from that time, after that, next ; hactZnus, hitherto, thus far, 
applied indifferently to place, time, or order. 

Obs. 3. Some adverbs of time apply indifferently to the past, the 
present, or the future ; as, jam, already, now. by and by ; olim, long 
ago, sometime hereafter. Some adverbs of place are equally va- 
rious in their use ; as. esse peregre, to be abroad j ire peregre, tr go 
abroad, redire peregre, to return from abroad. 

III. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

Adverbs derived from adjectives are generally 
compared like their primitives. The positive com- 
monly ends in -g, -o, or -Ur; the comparative in 
-ius; and the superlative in -ime ; as, 



Positive. 


Comp. 


Super. 


Alte, highly; 


altius, 


altisslme. 


FortHer, bravely ; 


fortius, 


fortissime. 


Acrlter, sharply ; 


acrius, 


acerrime. 


Libere, freely ; 


liberius, 


liberrlme. 


Tuto, safely ; 


tutius, 


tutisslme. 


The following adverbs are 


compared 


irregularly, like the ad jectiTM 


from which they are derived 


j viz. 




Bene, well ; 


melius, 


optime. 


Facile, easily ; 


facilius 


facillime. 


Male, badly ; 


pejus, 


pesslme. 


Multum, much; 


plus, 


plurlmum. 


Parum, little; 


minus 


( minime. 
\ minimum. 


Prope n°a*", 


propius. 


proxime. 



188 OF PREPOSITIONS. § 90 

Positive wanting. 

Magis, more, maxime; ocius, more siviftly, occissjme ; prius, soon* 
er, primo, or primum ; potius, rather, potisslmum. 

Comparative wanting. 

Pene, almost, penisslme ; nuper, lately, nuperrlme ; nove ; or novl- 
ter, newly, novissime ; merito, deservedly, meritissime. 

Superlative wanting. 

Satis, enough, satins -, secus, otherwise, secius. 

Two Adverbs not derived from adjectives are also compared ; 
namely, diu, long, diutius, diutissime; and ssepe, often, ssepius, 
sa3pisslme. 



$ 90. OF PREPOSITIONS. 

A Preposition is an indeclinable part of speech, 
which points out the relation of one thing to an- 
other, and always governs a certain case. 

The preposition, as its name imports, stands before the noun or pro- 
noun which it governs, and shews the relation between it and some 
preceding word. — In Latin ; 

Twenty-eight Prepositions govern the Accusative ; viz. 

Ad, to, at, towards. Inter, between, ammg, during. 

Apud, at, near, with. Intra, within. 

Ante, before, (of time, place Juxta, near, beside. 

or rank.) Ob, for, on account of, before* 

Adversus, ) . , Penes, in the power of. 

Adversum,) a 8 ams » owar s * p er< through, during, ly. 

Circa, ) 7 , . Pone, behind. 

^. > ar ozena, about. -0*77-7 A 

Circum, ) rost, behind, after, since. 

Circiter, about, (of time in- Praeter, besides, (passing by,) 

definitely.) beyond, besides, except. 

Cis, ) .7. .7 ..7 . Propter, near, on account of \ 
n .. ' } on this side, without. c j ? ** y J 

Citra, ) ' Secundum, along, according to 

Contra, against, opposite. Supra, above. 

Erga, towards. Trans, across, over, beyond. 

Extra, beyond, out of. Ultra, beyond. 

Infra, beneath. 



§ 90 OF PREPOSITIONS. 189 

Fifteen Prepositions govern the Ablative, viz. 

Ab, I from, by, after, &c. Ex, j out °f> f rom > a f ter > h- 
Abs, ) Palam, before, with the know- 

Absque, without. ledge of 

Cl&m,ivithout the knowledge of Pras, before, in comparison 
Coram, before, in presence of with, on account of. 

Cum, ivith. Pro, before, for, according to. 

De, concerning, of, over. Sine, without. 

Tenus, as far as, up to. 

Four Prepositions govern the Accusative or Ablative; viz. 

With the Accusative. With the Ablative. 

In, into, towards, against. In, upon, in, among. 
Sub, under, { motion to,) about. Sub, under, (motion or rest,) 
Super, above, over beyond. at, near. 

Subter, under. Super, upon, concerning. 

Subter, under. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. A is used before consonants ; ab before vowels, and h, j, r, *, and 
Sometimes I / abs before t and qu. E is used before consonants. 

2. Tenus is placed after its case ; and also cum, when joined to me, 
te, se, quo, qui, and quibus ; as, mecum, &c. Clam sometimes go- 
verns the Accusative as clam patre, or palrem. 

3. The adverbs prope, nigh, usque , as far as ; versus, towards ; are 
often followed by an accusative governed by ad understood, and some- 
times expressed. So also procul, far, is followed by the Ablative 
governed by a, understood. 

4. Prepositions not followed by their case are to be regarded as 
Adverbs. 

5. Prepositions are sometimes combined ; as, ex adversus eum lo- 
cum. Cic. In ante diem, " till the day." Cic. Ex ante diem, " from 
the day." But prepositions compounded together, commonly be 
come adverbs or conjunctions ; as,propalam, protinus, insuper, &c. 

6. A Preposition with its case is often used as an adverbial 
phrase ; as, ex animo, "earnestly;" ex adverso, "opposite,-" ex 
improviso, " suddenly ;" extempore, " off-hand." Quamobrem, (quam 
ob rem,) "wherefore;" quapropter (quce propter,) quocirca {quod 
circa, &c. 

7. Prepositions are either primitive ; as, ad, apud, ante, Sec. or 
derivative ; as, adversum from the adjective adversus ; secundum, from 
secundus. They are either simple ; as, ad, ante, abs ; or compound : 
as, ex adversum, absque. — Or inseparable as. am, di or dis, &c 
§91. 2 



190 PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. § 91 

f 9L PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 

1 . Prepositions are often prefixed to other words 
especially to Verbs, the meaning of which they 
generally modify by their own; thus, 

1. A, ab, abs, from; as duco, "I lead," abduco, "I lead away/' 
or " from;" sometimes it denotes privation; as, amens, "mad." 

2. Ad, to; as, adduco, " I lead to." It is sometimes intensive; as, 
adamo, " I love greatly." 

3. De, in composition, generally signifies " downward;" as, descen- 
do, M I go down;" decido, " I fall down;" sometimes it is intensive; 
as, deamo, "I love greatly;" sometimes it denotes privation; as, 
dc$p&ro, '' I despair ;" demens, " mad." 

4. E or ca;, out of; from ; as, exeo } " I go out ;" it is sometimes 
intensive; as, exoro, " I beg earnestly." Sometimes privative; as 

exsanguis, (i pale ;" exspes, u hopeless." 

5. In, into, in, against ; as, infer o, u I bring in f irruo, i{ I rush 
against or upon." With adjectives it generally reverses the significa- 
tion ; as, infidus, " unfaithful ;" indignus, " unworthy." In some 
compounds it has contrary significations, according as they are parti- 
ciples or adjectives: as, invocaius, " called upon," " not called upon ;" 
immutatus, "changed," M unchanged;" impotens, means " weak," 
sometimes " powerful." 

6. Per, through, is commonly intensive, especially with adjectives ; 
as, perfacilis, " very easy ;" with quam, it is strongly intensive ; as, 
per quamfaciliS] u exceedingly easy." In perfidus, u perfidious," it 
is negative. 

7. Prce, before, with adjectives is intensive ; as, prceclarus, " very 
clear," u very renowned." 

8. Pro, denotes " forth," as produco, " I lead forth." 

9. Sub, often diminishes the signification; as, rideo, " I laugh ;" 
subrideo, " I smile ;" albus, " white ;" subalbus, " whitish." Some- 
times it denotes motion upwards ; as, subrigo, " I raise up ;" some- 
times concealment ; as, rapio, li I take ;" subripio, u I take secret- 
ly," " I steal." 

Note. — Prepositions frequently seem to add nothing to the words, 
with which they are compounded. 

Obs. 1. In combining with the simple word, some prepositions 
frequently undergo a change of form, chiefly for the sake of euphony 
for which see § 80. R. 5. 



§ 92 OF INTERJECTIONS. 191 

INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS. 

2. The following syllables, am, di, or dis, re, se, 
con, are called Inseparable Prepositions, because 
they are never found except in compound words. 
Their general signification is as follows : 

Am, about, around ; as Ambio, to surround. 

Di, or dis, asunder; u Divello, to pull asunder. 

Re, back, again ; u Relego, to read again, 

Se, apart or aside; u Sepono, to lay aside. 

Con, together; u Concresco, to grow together, 

Obs. 1. Some of these syllables in combining with the simple word 
sometimes vary their form, § 80. 5. and also further modify its signi- 
fication ; as, 

1st. Am adds to the verb the general idea of round, round about. 

2d. Dis, or di, sometimes reverses the meaning of the simple 

word ; as, facilis, u easy ;" difficilis, " difficult ;" fido, " I 

trust," diffido, u I distrust ;" sometimes it increases it; as, 

cupio, :t I desire ;" discupio, u I desire much." 

3d. Re sometimes reverses the meaning of the simple word : as, 

claudo, l: I shut j" recludo. u I open. 5 ' 
4th. Se has little variation of meaning. With adjectives it denotes 

privation ; as, securus, u free from care." 
5th. Con, (for cum,) conveys the idea of joint or combined action, 
and sometimes increases the meaning of the word with which 
it is compounded. 
06s. 2. The syllables ne and v e are also prefixed to words and have 
a negative signification; as, fas, u justice ," nefas, u injustice;" 
" impiety;" scio, "I know," nescio, "I know not;" sanus, 
u healthy," vesanus, u sickly." 



$ 92. OF INTERJECTIONS. 

An Interjection is a word which expresses some 
emotion of the speaker; as, Oh, hei, heu, ah, alas! 

Nouns and adjectives in the neuter gender are sometimes used as 
interjections; as, pax! " be still;" malum, " with a mischief!" 
infandum ) " O shame!" miserum, " wretched !" nefas, "O the 
villany !" 

Note. — The same interjection is often used to express different 
emotions according to its connection; thus, vah, is used to express 
wonder, grief, joy, and anger. 



192 OF CONJUNCTIONS. § 93 

$ 93. CONJUNCTIONS. 

A Conjunction is a word which joins words 
and sentences together ; as, et, ac, atque, " and ;" 
etiam, " also/ 5 &c. 

Conjunctions according to their different significations may 
be divided into the following classes, 

1. Copulatives or such as connect things that are to be considered 
jointly ; as, ac, atque, et, que, and ; etiam, quoque, also ; and some- 
times the negative nee, neque, nor, and not. 

2. Disjunctives, or such as connect things that are to be considered 
separately ; as, aut, seu, sive, ve, vel, either, or ; and the negative 
neve, neu, neither, nor. 

3. Concessives, or such as express a concession ; as, esti, estiamsi, 
tametsi, licet, quanquam, quamvis, though, although. 

4. Adversatives, or such as express a condition • as, at, atqui, au- 
tern, cett'rum, verum, but ; tamen,attdmen, veruntdmen, yet, although j 
vero, truly. 

5. Casuals, or such as express a cause or reason ; as, Znim, etZnim* 
nam, namque, for ; quando, quandoquidem, whereas, since ; quia, 
qui-ppe, quod, because ; quoniam, quum, (or cum,) since, siquidem, if, 
indeed. 

6. Illatives, or such as express an inference j as, ergo, idcirco, 
proinde, quapropter, quart, quamobrem, quocirca, therefore. 

7. Finals, or such as denote a purpose, object or result j as, net 
lest j quin, but that ; quominus, that not ; ut, uti, that. 

8. Conditionals, or such as express a condition ; as, si, sin, if; nisi 
or ni, unless; dummodo, or dum modo, provided that. 

9. Suspensives, or such as express doubt ; as, an, anne, annon, ne, 
necne, num, utrum, whether, whether or not. 

Obs. 1. Some words, as, delude, u thereafter ;" denlque, u finally, " 
coete'rum, u but, moreover;" videlicet, " to wit j" &c. may be considered 
either as adverbs or conjunctions, according as their modifying or 
connecting power prevails. 

Obs. 2. Aut em j enim, vero, quoque, quidem, are never put first in a 
clause or sentence. Que, ve, ne, are always annexed to another 
word. They are called Enclitics, because when placed after a long 
syllable, they make the accent incline to that syllable ; as, disci, 
trochi ; descive trochive. 

Obs. 3. Conjunctions, like adverbs, are variously compounded 
with other parts of speech, and with each other ; as, atque, idcirco, 
ideo, namque, nee or neque, &c. 



§ 94 95 OF SYNTAX- 193 



PART THIRD. 



§ 94. SYNTAX. 

Syntax is that part of Grammar, which treats 
of the proper arrangement and connection of 
words in a sentence. 

1; A sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes complete 
sense ,• as, Man is mortal. 

2. A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, but not 
making complete sense ; as, In truth, in a word. 

3. Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 

4. A simple sentence contains but one subject and one verb j as, 
Life is short. 

5. A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences 
combined; as, Life which is short, should be well employed. 

6. Every simple sentence consists of two parts, the subject and the 
predicate. 

7. The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of. It is either in the 
nominative case before a finite verb, or in the accusative before the 
infinitive. 

8. The predicate is the thing affirmed or denied of the subject. 
It is either contained in the verb itself; as, John reads ; or it consists 
of an intr. verb, with an adjective or noun following it ; as, Time is 
short ; they became poor ; he is a scholar 

9. Both the subject and predicate may be attended by other words 
called adjuncts, which serve to restrict or modify the meaning of the 
word with which they may stand connected ; as, An inordinate desire 
of admiration often produces a contemptible levity of deportment. 

10. When a compound sentence is so framed that the meaning is 
suspended till the whole be finished, it is called a period. 



§ 95. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SYNTAX. 

1. In every sentence there must be a verb in the indicative, subjunc- 
tive, imperative, or infinitive mood, and a subject expressed or un- 
derstood. 

2. Every adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle must have a 
substantive expressed or understood with which it agrees. § 9Sand 146. 

17 



194 OF SYNTAX. § 95 

3. Every relative must have an antecedent or word to which it re- 
fers, and with which it agrees. § 99. 

4. Every nominative has its own verb expressed or understood, of 
which it is the subject. § 100, 101, 102. Or is placed after the sub- 
stantive verb in the predicate. § 103. 

5. Every finite verb; i. e. every verb in the indicative, subjunc- 
tive or imperative mood, has its own nominative, expressed or 
understood. § 101, 102. and when the infinitive has a subject it is in 
the accusative. § 145. The infinitive without a subject does not 
form a sentence or proposition. § 143. 

6. Every oblique case is governed by some word, expressed or un- 
derstood in the sentence of which it forms a part, according to the 
following 

SYNOPSIS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF CASES. 

7. The GENITIVE CASE is governed, 

1st. By substantives. § 106. Rules, VI. VII. and VIII. 

2d. By adjectives. § 107. Namely, verbals, &c. R. IX. — Partitives, 

R. X.— Of plenty or want, R. XI, 
3d. By verbs. § 108. Namely, Sum, R. XII.— MiserZor, &c. R. 

XIII. — Recordor, memini, &c. R. XIV. — Of accusing, &c. § 122. 

R. XXVII.— Of valuing, R. XXVIII —Passive verbs. § 126. 

R. I. and II. — Impersonals. § 113. Exc. I. and II. 
4th. By adverbs. § 135, and, 
5th. It is used to express circumstances of place. § 130. R. XXXVI. 

and XXXIX. 

8. The DATIVE is governed, 
1st. By substantives. § 110. 

2d. By adjectives of profit or disprofit, &c. § 111. R. XVI 
3d. By verbs. § 112. Namely, Sim, and its compound. R. I. — Est. 
R. II. Certain compound verbs. R. III. and IV. — Verbs signi- 
fying to profit or hurt, &c. R. V. Impersonals. § 113. — Verbs 
with two datives. § 114. — Verbs of comparing, &c. § 123. — 
Passive verbs. § 126. R. XXXII. and XXXIII.— Gerunds. $ 147. 
4th. By adverbs. § 135. — Interjections, § 117. 

9. The ACCUSATIVE is governed, 

1st. By verbs signifying actively. § 116. R. XX. — To which belong 
Recordor, memini, &c. § 108. Verbs governing two cases. § 122, 
namely of accusing, R. XXVII.— Valuing, R. XXVIII.— Com- 
paring, &c. § 123.— Asking and teaching, § 124. — Loading, 
binding, kc. § 125. — By impersonal verbs, § 113. Ex. II. and 
ITT.— By passive verbs, § 126 R. IV 



§ 95 OF SYNTAX. 196 

&i. By prepositions, § 136. R. XL VIII. L. LI. LII. 

3d. It is used to express circumstances of limitation, § 128.— of 

place, § 130.— Of time, § 131.— Of measure, § 132. 
4th. It is put before the infinitive as its subject. § 145. 

10. The VOCATIVE is governed by the interjections O, 
heu, pro, &c. § 117. — Oris used without government to de- 
note the person addressed. 

11. The ABLATIVE is governed, 
1st. By nouns, 118. 

2d. By adjectives, viz. of plenty or want, § 107. R. XI. — Dignus, 
indignus, &c. § 119. — The comparative degree, § 120. 

3d. By verbs, § 121. viz. of plenty and scarceness, R. XXV. — Utor 
abutor, &c. R. XXVI. — Loading, binding, &c. § 125. — Passive 
verbs § 126. R. V. 

4th. By prepositions, § 136, R. XLIX LI. LII. 

5th. It is used without a governing word to express circumstances, 
viz.— Of limitation, § 128. — Of cause, manner, &c. § 129. — Of 
place, § 130. Namely, the place in which, R. XXXVI.— -from 
which, R. XXXVIII. and XXXIX.— Of time, § 131. R. XL. 
and XLL— Of measure, § 132. R. XLII. XLIIL— Of price. 
§ 123. 

6th. It is used as the case absolute. § 146. R. LX. 

CONSTRUCTION OF MOODS. 

12. The Indicative and Imperative moods are independent 
and without government, 

] 3. The Subjunctive Mood is always dependent, and is 
used, 

1st. After certain conjunctions, § 140. 

2d. After the relative in certain connections, § 141, R. LV 

3d. In oblique discourse, § 141. Rule VI, 

14. The Infinitive Mood is used, 

1st. Without a subject, or as a verbal noun, § 144. and R. L VI. 

LVII. 
2d. With a subject in dependent and subordinate clauses, § 145. 

15. Participles are construed as adjectives, Gerunds and 
Supines as nouns, § 146. 147. 148. 

16. For the construction of adverbs and conjunctions, see 
$ 134. 149. 



196 SYNTAX.- -THE SUBSTANTIVE* §96 97 

$ 96. PARTS OF SYNTAX. 

The Parts of Syntax are commonly reckoned 
two, Concord or agreement, and Government. 

Concord is the agreement of one word with 
another, in gender, number, case, or person. 

Government is that power which one word has 
in determining the mood, tense, or case of another 
word. 

I. OF CONCORD. 

Concord or agreement is fourfold ; viz. 

1. Of a substantive with a substantive. 

2. Of an adjective with a substantive. 

3. Of a relative with its antecedent. 

4. Of a verb with its nominative or subject. 



§ 97. A SUBSTANTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 
Rule I. Substantives denoting the same person 
or thing agree in case ; as, 

Cicero orator, Cicero the orator. 

Ciceronis oratoris, Of Cicero the orator, &c. 

Urbs Athence, The city Athens. 

Urbi Athenis, To the city Athens. 

EXPLANATION.— Substantives thus used are said to be in apposition The 
second substantive is added to express some attribute, description, or appellative 
belonging to the first, and must always be in the same member of the sen- 
tence ; i. e. they must be both in the subject or both in the predicate. A sub- 
stantive predicated of another, though denoting the same thing, is not in ap- 
position with it , and does not come under this rule, § 103. 

This rule applies to all substantive words, such as personal and relative 
pronouns, adjectives used substantively, &c. 

Nouns in apposition are often connected in English, by such particles as 
as, being, for, like, &c. as, Pater misit me comitcm, (( My father sent me as a 
Companion,'' "/or a companion, 7 ' &c. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
Obs. 1. It is not necessary that nouns in apposition agree in gen- 
der, number, or person. In these respects they are often different j 
as, Magnum pauperies opprobrium. Hor. Alexin delicias domini. 
Virg. 

Obs. 2. Two or more nouns in the singular have a noun in apposi- 
tion in the plural,- as, M. Antonius, C. Cassius, tribuni plebis, "Mar- 
cus Antonius, Caius Cassius, tribunes of the people." Also if the 



§ 98 SYNTAX. THE ADJECTIVE. 197 

singular nouns be of different genders, the plural in apposition will 
have the masculine rather than the feminine, if both forms exist ; as. 
Ad Ptolemaum et Cleopatram reges, (not reginas) legati missi. Liv. 

Obs. 3. The substantive pronoun having a word in apposition is 
frequently omitted j as ; Consul dixi, (scil. ego,) (t (I) the consul 
said." 

Obs. 4. The possessive pronoun being equivalent to the genitive of 
the personal, has a noun in apposition with it in the genitive ; as, 
Pectus tuum, homlnis simplicis. 

Obs. 5. Sometimes the former noun denotes a whole, of which the 
noun in apposition expresses \he parts ; as, Onerarise, pars ad jEgi- 
murum, — aliae adversus urbem ipsam deldtce sunt, tl The ships of 
burden were carried, part to JEgimurus, — others against the city it- 
self 7 ' So Quisque pro se quceruntur, " They complain each for him- 
self." 

Obs. 6. A sentence or clause may supply the place of one of the 
substantives; as, Cogitet orator em institui, rem arduam j " Let him 
consider that an orator is training, a difficult matter." 

Exceptions. 

Exc. 1. Sometimes the latter substantive is put in the genitive j as, 
Fons Timavi, " The fountain of Timavus ;" Amnis Eriddni, " The 
river Eridanus j" Arbor fici " the fig tree ;" Nomen Mercurii est mihi. 
Words thus construed may be referred to § 112. 

Exc. 2. A proper name after the generic term nomen, or cognomen, 
sometimes elegantly takes the case of the person in the Dative ; as, 
Nomen Arcturo est mihi, " I have the name Arcturus." Plaut. So, 
Cui nunc cognomen IuLo additur. Virg. Cui Egerio inditum nomen 
Liv. Mansit Silviis postea omnibus cognomen. Liv. § 114. Obs. 5. 

Exc. 3, The name of a Town in the genitive, denoting at a place, 
may have a noun of the third declension or plural number, in appo- 
sition with it in the Ablative, and vice versa ; as, Corinthi Achaice 
urbe, "At Corinth a city of Achaia." This construction depends 
on the rules, § 130. 



§ 98. AN ADJECTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 

Rule II. An adjective agrees with its substan- 
tive in gender, number, and case ; as, 

Bonus vir, a good man. Bonos viros, good men. 

Bona puella, a good girl. Bonarum legum, of good laws. 

Dulce pomum, a sweet apple. Tuis donis, with thy gifts. 

EXPLANATION. — This rule applies to all adjectives, adjective pronouns, and 
participles; and requires that they be in the same gender, number, and case 
with their substantives. — The word " substantive/ 7 in this rule, includes per. 
eonal and relative pronouns, and all words or phrases used as substantives 

17* 



198 SYNTAX. THE ADJECTIVE. § 95 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. Two or more substantives singular, unless taken 
separately, have an adjective plural ; as, 

Vir et puer lerriti lupo, ci A man and boy terrified by a wolf." 

Obs. 2. If all the substantives be of the same gender, the 
adjectives will be of that gender, as in the above example. 
But if the substantives are of different genders, the adjective 
takes the masculine rather than the feminine, and the feminine 
rather than the neuter ; as, 
Pater mihi, et mater mortui sunt, My father and mother are dead. Ter. 

Obs. 3. But if they denote things without life, the adjective 
is commonly neuter. And if some of the substantives refer 
to things with life, and others to things without life, the ad- 
jective is either neuter, or takes the gender of the thing 01 
things with life , as. 

Labor voluptasque sunt dissimilia naturd, u Toil and pleasure are 

unlike in nature." 
Naves et captivi qua ad Chium capta sunt. u The ships and captives 

which were taken at Chios." 

Numidcc aique militaria signa obscurati sunt, cc The Numidians and 

their military standards were partially concealed." 

Obs. 4. Sometimes, however, the adjective agrees with the nearest 

noun, and is understood to the rest; as, sociis et rege recepto. Virg. 

" Our companions and king being recovered." 

Note 1. These observations may, and sometimes do hold good, even when one 
or more of the substantives are in the ablative, connected with the others by 
cum; as, Filiam cumfilio accitos. 

Obs. 5. When the substantive to which the adjective or 
adjective pronoun belongs, may be easily supplied, it is fre- 
quently omitted, and the adjective assuming its gender, num- 
ber, and case, is often used as a substantive, and may have 
an adjective agreeing with it ; as, 

Mortalis, a mortal, (sc. homo.) Ille, he, (sc. homo.) 

Superi, the gods above, (sc. dii.) Mi, they, (sc. homines) 

Dextra, the right hand, (sc. manus.) Hie, he, (sc. homo). 
Sinistra, the left hand, (sc. manus) Hcec,she, (sc. femina,) 
Omnia alia, all other, (things,) Familiaris meus, il my 

intimate friend." (sc. amicus.) 

Obs. 6. The adjective, especially when used as a predi- 
cate, without a substantive or definite object, is used in the 
neuter gender ; as, 

Triste lupus stabulis, The wolf is grievous to the folds. 

Vacare culpa est suave, To be free from blame is pleasant 
Labor vincit omnia. Labor overcomes all obstacles- 



§98 



SYNTAX — -THE ADJECTIVE. 199 



Obs. 7. Imperatives, infinitives, adverbs, clauses, and 
words considered merely as such, when used substantively, 
take an adjective in the neuter gender ; as, 

Supremum vale dixit. He pronounced o last farewell. 

Cras istud quando vZnit, When does that to-morrow come ? 

Excepto quod non simul esses, That you were not present, being ex- 
cepted. 

Obs. 8. A substantive is sometimes used as an adjective ; as, p o- 
pulum late regem (for regnant -em,) u a people of extensive sway." 
Nemo miles Romanus, " No Roman Soldier." Sometimes an ad- 
verb ; as, Heti semper lenitas, probably for leniUs semper existens, or 
the like. 

Obs. 9. These adjectives, primus, medius, ultimus, extremus, in- 
fimus, imu-s, summits, supremus, reliquus, c&tlra, usually signify 
the first part> the middle part, &c. of any thins:, and are placed 
before the substantive ; as, media nox, u the middle of the night;" 
summus mons, l ' the top of the mountain." 

Obs. 10. Some adjectives denoting the time or circumstances of an 
action are used in the sense of adverbs ; as, prior venit, u he came 
first of the two ;" pronus cecidit, li he fell forward;" abiit sublimis, 
u he went on high." 

Obs. 11. Alius though an adjective is often used as a pronoun, and 
has this peculiarity of construction, that when repeated with a diffe- 
rent word in the same clause, it renders the one simple proposition 
to which it belongs equivalent to two, and it is to be so rendered -, 
thus, Aliud aliis videtur optimum, Ci One thing seems best to some, 
another seems best to others." So, Duo reges, alius alia via, Hie 
bello, hie pace, civitatem auxerunt, " Two kings, one in one way and 
another in another, &c. Or the two simple sentences may be com- 
bined in a plural form, thus: " Different things seemed best to dif- 
ferent persons." — "Two kings, each in a different way," &c. The 
same is true when a word derived from alius, such as aliunde, aliter, 
alio, is put with it in the same clause ; as, Aliis aliunde periculum 
est, " There is danger to one person from one source, and to another 
from another ," — or combined, " There is danger to different persons 
from different sources." 

Obs. 12. When alius is repeated in a different clause, but in the same 
construction, the first is to be rendered " one," the second u another." 
If plural " some" — u others," as, aliud est maledictre, aliud accusare, 
" It is one thing to rail at, another to accuse." Cic. Proferebant alii 
purpuram, thus alii, " Some brought forth purple, others incense." 

This remark is applicable to alter, remembering only, that alius 
signifies one of many, alter, one of two ; as, Quorum alter exercu 
turn perdidit alter vendidit. 

Exceptions 

Exc. 1. An adjective is often put in a different gender or 
number from the substantive with which it is connected 



200 SYNTAX THE RELATIVE. § 99 

tacitly referring to its meaning rather than to its form, or to 
some other word synonymous with it, or implied in it ; as, 

Latium Capuaque agro mulctati, u Latium and Capua were deprived 
of their land/ 7 i. e. the people of Latium, &c. Capita conjurationis 
virgis ccesi, — " the heads (i. e. the leading men) of the conspiracy/' 
&c. 

Exc. 2. A collective noun in the singular, if its verb be 
plural, has an adjective in the plural, and in the gender of 
the individuals which form the collection ; as, 

Pars in Jlumen acti sunt, ' ' A part were forced into the river." 
Sometimes it takes the gender of the individual in the singular ; as, 
pars arduus furit, &c. 

Exc. 3. A plural noun or pronoun used to denote one person, in 
comic writers, sometimes has an adjective or participle in the singu 
lar, as Nobis presente, ll I being present." 

Exc. 4. The adjective pronouns, uterque, quisque, &c. in the singular, 
are often put with nouns in the plural, to intimate that the objects 
are spoken of individually and distributively ; as, Uterque eorum ex 
castris exerciium educunt, u Each of them leads his army from the 
camp." Quisque pro se queruntur, " They complain each one for 
himself." Alius and alter are sometimes used in the same way ; as, 
Multa conjecta sunt aliud alio tempore. Obs. 11. In this construction 
there is a kind of apposition. § 97. Obs, 5. 



§ 99. THE RELATIVE AND ANTECEDENT. 

Rule III. The relative Qui, qua, quod, agrees 
with its antecedent in gender, number, and per- 
son; as, 

Ego quiscribo, I who write. 

Tu qui legis, Thou who readest. 

Vir qui loquitur, The man who speaks. 

Viri qui loquuntur, The men who speak. 

EXPLANATION.— The antecedent is the noun or pronoun going before the rela- 
tive to which it refers. Sometimes, however, the relative and its clause is 
placed before the antecedent and its clause. 

The infinitive mood or a part of a sentence is sometimes the antecedent, in 
which case the relative must be in the neuter gender. The case of the relative 
depends on the construction of the clause to which it belongs, (See Obs. 9.) 
and in this respect is to be considered as a noun. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
Obs. 1. Strictly speaking, the relative does not agree with 
the antecedent, but with the same word expressed or under- 
stood after the relative, and with which, like the adjective, 



§99 



SYNTAX. THE RELATIVE 201 



it agrees in gender, number and case, as well as person; 
thus. Diem dicunt, qua. (die,) &c. They appoint a day on 
which (day,) &c. Hence in connecting the antecedent and 
relative clause, the following variety of usage occurs, viz : 

1st. The word to which the relative refers is commonly expressed 
in the antecedent clause, and not with the relative ,* as, vir 
sapit qui pauca loquitur, u he is a wise man who speaks little. " 

2d. It is often not expressed in the antecedent clause, and expressed 
with the relative ; as, In quern primum egressi sunt locum 
Troja vocdtur, i. e. locus in quern, &c. 

3d. Sometimes when greater precision is required, it is expressed 
in both ; as, Erant omnlno itinera duo } quibus itinerlbus domo 
exire possent. 

4th. When the reference is of a general nature, and there is no 
danger of obscurity, the word to which the relative refers is 
understood in both clauses ; as, Sunt quos juvat collegisse, i. e. 
sunt homines quos (homines) juvat, &c. Non habeo quod te 
accusem, i. e. non habeo id propter quod te accusem. 

Obs. 2. The antecedent is sometimes implied in a preceding word ; 
as, omnes laudarefortunas meas qui haberem, &c. "all were praising my 
fortune who had," &c. i. e. fortunas mei qui, the possessive meas, 
being equivalent to the genitive of ego. § 30. Obs. 1. 

Obs. 3. When a relative refers to one or two nouns, denoting the 
same object, but of different genders, it may agree with either ; as, 
F lumen est Arar quod, &c. Here quod agrees with flumen. Ad flu- 
men Ossum perventumest, qui, &c. Here qui agrees with Ossum. 

Obs. 4. So also when the relative stands between two nouns mean- 
ing the same thing, the one in the antecedent and the other in the re- 
lative clause, it may agree with either : as, Genus hominum, quod 
vocatur Helotes; Animal quern vocamus hominem. In the first sentence 
quod agrees with genus in the antecedent clause, in the second, quern 
agrees with hominem in the relative clause. 

Obs. 5. An adjective which properly belongs to the antecedent is 
sometimes placed in the relative clause, agreeing with the relative. 
This is the case, especially if the adjective be a numeral, a compa- 
rative, or superlative ; as, Inter jocos, quos inconditos jaciunt, for 
jocos inconditos, quos, &c. " Amidst the rude jests which they utter." 
Node, quam interris ultlmam egit, for Node ultima, quam, Sec. " The 
last night which he spent upon earth." 

Obs. 6. When a relative refers to two or more antecedents taken 
together, it agrees with them in gender and number, in all respects 
as the adjective does with different substantives, as stated, § 98. 
Obs. 1. 2. 3. 4. But, 

If the antecedents are of different persons, the relative plural takes 
the first person rather than the second, and the second rather than 
the third. 

Exc. 1 . The relative sometimes takes the gender and number, not of 
the antecedent noun, but of some one synonymous with it or implied 
in it ; as, Edrum rerum quce mortdles prima putant, <( Of those things 



202 SYNTAX.-— THE RELATIVE, § 99 

which men deem most important." Here qua seems to agree with 
negotia, considered synonymous with rerum. — Ddret ut cat enis fatal e 
monstrum quce. The antecedent is monstrum, hut quce agrees with 
Cleopatra, the monster intended. Conjuravere pauci contra rempub- 
licam, de qua (scil conjuratione, implied in conjuravere,) quam bre- 
vissime poUro dicam. "A few entered into a conspiracy against 
the republic, concerning which," &c. 

Obs. 7. The relative quicunque and quivis, are sometimes used in- 
stead of qui, when a general or indefinite term is expressed or under- 
stood with the antecedent ; as, quce sandri pote'runt quacunque ratione 
sandbo ) equivalent to omni ratione quacunque {possum,) " What can 
be cured, I will cure by every means I can." 

This construction corresponds to that of the Greek <j(fri£> Gr. 
Gram. § 135. 7. 

Obs. 8. When the relative clause is connected with the antecedent, 
not by the relative itself but by some such connective as cum or 
quum, ubi, si, &c. signifying " when," " if," &c. the relative assumes 
the character of a personal or demonstrative, with or without et 
prefixed ; as, etille, et hie, et is, etilli, &c. and may generally be ren- 
dered by these pronouns ; as, qui quum legatos non admitte'ret, " and 
when he would not admit the ambassadors ;" quce ubi convenit, 
(i when it (sc. *classis the fleet,) assembled." Ad quarum initium 
silv drum quum Ccesarpervenis set, " When Caesar had come to the 
beginning of these woods." Quam quum Romanbram dux dare noU 
let, u And when the Roman general would not grant this., (sc. pacem, 
peace,) &c. 

CASE OF THE RELATIVE. 

Obs. 9. The relative in respect of case, is always to be 
considered as a noun, and if no nominative come between it 
and the verb, the relative shall be the nominative to the verb ; 
as, Ego, qui scribo, I who write. But, 

If a nominative come between the relative and the verb, 
the relative shall be of that case which the verb or noun fol- 
lowing, or the preposition going before, usually governs $ as, 

Deus quern colimus, God whom we worship. 

Cujus munere vivimus, By whose gift we live. 

A quo facta sunt omnia, By whom all things were made. 

Exc. 2. The relative after the manner of the Greek, is sometimes 
attracted into the case of its antecedent ; as, cum agas aliquid eorum 
quorum consuesii &c. for eorum qvje consuesti, u When you do any of 
those things which you have been accustomed to do." Raptim quibus 
quisque pottrat eldtis, for (its) oum quisque, &c. Those things which 
each one could being hastily snatched up. 

Exc. 3. The antecedent is sometimes attracted into the case of 
the relative ; as, Urbem quam statuo vestra est, for urbs quam statuo, 
&c. '' The city which I am building is yours." 

These are Greek constructions seldom used by Latin writers. See 
Greek Gr. § 135. Exc. 9. 10. 



§ 100 101 SYNTAX. NOMINATIVE CASE 203 

Obs. 10. The relative adjectives quot, quotus, quantus, qualis, are 
often construed in a manner similar to the relative, having their red- 
ditives, or corresponding adjectives tot, totus, tantus, talis, expressed 
in the antecedent clause ; as. Fades qualem dccet esse sororum, i. e. 
talis fades, u The features, such as usually belong to sisters." 
Tantce multitudinis quant am capit urbs, " Of as great a multitude as 
the city contains." 

When the relative adjective and its redditive refer to different sub- 
stantives, each agrees with its own. But among the poets, the rela- 
tive sometimes agrees with the substantive in the antecedent clause, 
and not with that in its own. 

Sometimes the redditive is understood, and sometimes the relative. 



$ 100. CONSTRUCTION OF THE NOMINATIVE 
CASE. 

The Nominative case is used, 

1. To express the subject of a proposition/ 

2. In apposition with another substantive in the nomina- 
tive (§ 97.) or predicated of it. § 103. 

3. In exclamations; as, O vir fortis atque Amicus! 



§ 101. THE VERB AND ITS NOMINATIVE. 

Rule IV. A Verb agrees with its nominative in 
number and person ; as, 

Ego lego, I read. Noslegimus, We read. 

Tu scribis, Thou writest, Vos scribitis, Ye write. 

Ille loquitur, He speaks. Illi loquuntur, They speak. 

EXPLANATION— The nominative to a verb is the subject or thing spoken of in 
the sentence. It may be a noun, a pronoun, an adjective used as a noun, the 
infinitive, a gerund, or a part of a sentence. To all these this rule applies and 
requires that the verb should be in the same number and in the same person as 
the nominative. For person, see § 28. Obs. 1. 2. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. The nominatives Ego, tu, nos, vos, of the first and second 
person are generally omitted, being obvious from the termination of 
the verb ; also, of the third person when it is an indefinite word, or 
may be easily supplied from the context ; asferunt, they say, &c. 

Cbs. 2. The subject is also omitted when the verb expresses the 



201 SYNTAX.— THE NOMINATIVE. § 102 

state of the weather, or an operation of nature ; as, Fulgiirat, it 
lightens; pluit, it rains ,• ningit, it snows. 

Obs. 3. Impersonal verbs are usually considered as without a nomi- 
native. Still they will generally be found to bear a relation to some 
circumstance, sentence, clause of a sentence, or infinitive mood, simi- 
lar to that between a verb and its nominative ; as, delectatme studere; 
u it delights me to study," i. e. u to study delights me ;" mistret me 
iui, u I pity you -" i, e. conditio, or fortuna tui mistret me, u your con- 
dition excites my pity. § 144. Obs. 1. 

Obs. 4. The verb is sometimes omitted when the nominative is ex 
pressed, and sometimes when it is understood ; as, Nam ego Poly- 
dor us, (sc. sum,) " For I am Polydorus." Omnia prcecldra rara, 
(sc. sunt.) u All excellent things are rare." Tumille, (sc.respondit,) 
u Then he replied." Verum hacttnus hcec, (sc. diximus.) 

Obs. 5. When the subject is an infinitive, or a clause of a sentence 
the verb is in the third person singular; and, if a compound tense, 
the participle is put in the neuter gender ; as, incertum est quamlonga 
nostrum cujusque vita futura sit, " How long any of us shall live is un- 
certain." 

Obs. 6- The nominative is sometimes found with the infinitive, in 
which case ccepit or cceperunt, or some other verb according to the 
sense is understood ; as, Omnes invidere mihi, u Every one envied 
me." The infinitive with the nominative before it is so common in 
historical narrative that it is called the historical infinitive. Thus 
used, it is translated as the imperfect, for which tense it seems to be 
used. § 144. Obs, 6. 



§ 102. SiECTAL RULES AND OBSERVATIONS. 

I. Of agreement in number and person. 
Rule I. Two or more substantives singular, ta- 
ken together, have a verb in the plural : Taken 
separately, the verb is usually singular; as, 

Together, 
Furor iraque mentem prcecipitant, Fury and rage hurry on my mind. 

Separately, 
Si Socrates aut AntisthZnes dicer et, If Socrates orAntisthenes should say. 

Obs. 1. To both parts of this rule however, and especially to the first 
there are many exceptions. If one of the nominatives be plural, the 
verb is commonly plural. But sometimes the verb agrees with the 
nominative nearest it, and is understood to the rest, especially when 
each of the nominatives is preceded by et or turn, or they denote things 
without life -, as, Mens enim, et ratio, et consilium in senibus est. 

When the nominatives are disjunctively connected by aut, neque, 
&c. the verb is sometimes plural ; and it is always so when the 
substantives are of different persons ; as, neque ego, neque Ccesar 
habiti essemus. 



§ 103 SYJSTAX. — THE NOMINATIVE. 205 

Obs. 2. A substantive in the nominative singuIar,coupled with another 
in the ablative by cum, may have a plural verb ; as, Remo cum fratre 
Quirinus jura dubunt. 

Obs. 3. When the nominatives are of different persons, the verb 
is commonly plural, and takes the first person rather than the second 
and the second rather than the third ; as, Si iu et Tullia valetis, ego 
et Cicero valemus, " If you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are 
well." 

But sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest nominative, and is 
understood to the rest, and always so when the verb has different 
modifications with each nominative ; as, ego miser e, tu felictter 
vivis. 

Rule II. A collective noun expressing many 
as one whole has a verb in the singular ; as, 

Populus me sibilat, The people hiss at me. 

Senatus in curiam venit, The Senate came into the Senate-house. 

But when it expresses many as individuals, the 
verb must be plural; as, 

Pars epulis onirant mensas, Part load the tables with food. 

Turba ruunt, The crowd rush. 

Veniunt leve vulgus euntque, The fickle populace come and go. 

Obs. 4. To both parts of this rule there are also exceptions, and in 
some cases it seems indifferent whether the verb be in the singular or 
plural, sometimes both are joined with the same word ; as, Turba ex 
eo loco dilabebdtur, refracturosque carcerem minabantur. 

Obs. 5. Uterque, quisque, pars. .. .pars, alius.. alius, and al- 
ter. . . .alter, on account of the idea of plurality involved, frequent- 
ly have the verb in the plural. This construction may be explained 
on the principle mentioned, § 98. Exc. 4. where see examples. 



§ 103. OF THE NOMINATIVE AFTER THE VERB. 

Rule V. Any verb may have the same case 
after it as before it, when both words refer to the 
same thing; as, 

Ego sum discipiilus, I am a scholar. 

Tu vocdris Joannes, Thou art called John. 

Ilia incedit regrna, She walks (as) a queen. 

EXPLANATION :— Under this rule the nominative before the verb is the *uh- 
ject or thing spoken of, the nominative after it is the predicate or the thing as- 
serted of the subject. The verb is the copula connecting the one with the other 
and is usually a substantive or neuter verb, a passive verb of naming, judging, 
appointing, &c. 

This rule applies to the accusative and dative before and after the infinitir* 
of the above verbs. See Obs. 5. 6. 7. 8. 

18 



206 SYNTAX.— -THE NOMINATIVE. § 103 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. Any of the above verbs between two nominatives of different 
numbers, commonly agrees in number with the former or subject ; 
as, Dos est decern talenta, " Her dowry is ten talents/ 7 Ter. Omnia 
pontus erant, " All was sea." Ovid. But sometimes with the latter 
or predicate ; as, Amantium irce, amoris integratio est, " The quarrels 
of lovers is a renewal of love." 

So also when the nouns are of different genders, an adjective, adjec- 
tive pronoun, or a participle in the predicate, commonly agrees with 
the subject of the verb ; as, oppidum appellatum est Possidonia : — But 
sometimes with the predicate ; as Non omnis error stultitia dicenda 
est. Cic. 

Obs. 2. When the predicate is an adjective, adjective pronoun, or 
participle without a substantive, it agrees with the subject before the 
verb according to Rule II. § 98. Except as noticed in the same sec- 
tion, Obs. 6. 

Obs. 3. When the subject is of the second person, and the vocative 
stands before the verb, the adjective or participle will usually be in 
the nominative, according to the rule; as, esto, tu, Ccesar amicus ; but 
sometimes it is put in the vocative ; as, Qwibus Hector ab oris ex* 
pectdte venis. — Virg. for expect atus. Hence the phrase, Made vir- 
tute esto, for mactus. 

Obs. 4. The noun opus commonly rendered " needful," is often used 
as a predicate after sum ; as, Dux nobis opus est, " A leader is wanted 
by us." 

Note. — Such expressions as Audivi hocpuer ; — Rempublicam defendi 
adolescens, — Sapiens nil facit invltus, belong more properly to Rule 
I. and II. than to this. 

Obs. 5. The accusative or dative before the infinitive under this 
Rule, requires the same case after it in the predicate ; as, 

Novimus te esse fort em, We know that thou art brave. 

Mihi negligenti non esse licet, I am not allowed to be negligent. 

Obs. 6. When the subject of the infinitive is the same with the sub- 
ject of the preceding verb, it is often omitted, in which case the pre- 
dicate after the infinitive is in the nominative agreeing with the pre- 
ceding subject, or in the Accusative agreeing with the subject of the 
infinitive understood; as, Cupio diet doctus, or cupio did doctum ; 
i. e. me did doctum, u I desire to be called learned." The first of 
these is a Greek construction, and seldom used by prose writers. 
See Gr. Gram. § 175. 3. 

Obs. 7. When the infinitive of such verbs has a dative before it, it 
may be followed either by a dative or an accusative ; as, Licet mihi 
esse beato ; or, licet mihi esse bedtum, "I may be happy. " In the 
first case beato agrees with mihi ; in the second, beatum agrees with 
me, to be supplied as the subject of esse. Sometimes when the sen- 
tence is indefinite, the dative also is understood ; as, licet esse beatum, 
(sc. alicui,) " One may be happy." The first of these forms also is 
a Greek construction. See Gr. Gram. § 175. Obs. 5. 

Obs. 8. This variety of case after the infinitive is admissible only 
with the nominative, dative, and accusative. The other cases before 
the infinitive have the accusative after it, agreeing with the subject 
of the infinitive understood ; as, interest omnium (se) esse bonos 



§ 104-5-6 SYNTAX. OF GOVERNMENT. 207 

§ 104. OF GOVERNMENT 

1. Government is the power which one word has over another de- 
pending upon it, requiring it to be put in a certain case, mood, or tense 

2. The words subject to government are nouns and verbs. 

3. The words governing or affecting these in their case, mood or 
tense, are nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, and words indeclinable. 

4. To the Syntax of nouns belongs all that part of Syntax relating 
to the government of Case. Every thing else in government belongs 
to the Syntax of the verb, § 137, et seq. 



SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 

In this part of Grammar under the term noun or substantive, is 
comprehended every thing used in Latin Grammar as such, namely, 
nouns, personal pronouns, adjective pronouns used personally, ad- 
jectives without substantives, gerunds, together with infinitives, and 
substantive clauses used as nouns. 

The construction of the oblique cases depends in general upon 
the particular ideas expressed by the cases themselves as they are 
stated, § 7. 3. or hereafter mentioned under each case. 



$ 105. CONSTRUCTION OF THE GENITIVE. 

The Genitive, as its name imports, with the meaning of the word con- 
nects the idea of origin, and hence that of property or possession. It 
is used in general to limit the signification of another word, 
with which it is joined, by representing it as something originating 
with, possessed by, or relating to, that which the genitive or limiting 
word expresses ; and it is said to be governed by the word so limited, 
i. e. ; the word limited requires the word limiting it to be put in the 
Genitive case. 

The Genitive is governed by Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs ; and 
also is used to express circumstances of place, quantity or degree. 



§ 106. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY NOUNS. 
Rule VI. One substantive governs another in 
the genitive, when the latter substantive limits the 
signification of the former ; as, 

Amor gloria, The love of glory. 

Lexnaturce, The law of nature. 



208 SYNTAX. THE GENITIVE. § 106 

EXPLANATION.— Under this rule the two substantives must be of different 
signification, and the one used to restrict the meaning of the other. Thus in the 
first example Amor, alone, means il love" in general; but the term gloria joined 
with it, restricts its meaning here to a particular object il glory," and so of 
other examples. 

N. B. When a noun is limited by another of the same signification, it is put 
in the same case by Rule I. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. When the governing noun expresses a feeling or act, &c. 
inherent in, or exercised by the noun governed in the genitive, the 
genitive is said to be subjective or active. But when the governing 
noun denotes something of which the noun governed is the object, 
the genitive is then said to be objective or passive. Thus in the 
phrase Providentia Dei, the genitive is necessarily subjective or ac- 
tive because providentia expresses an act or operation of which God 
is the subject, and of which he cannot be the object. On the other 
hand, in the phrase timor Dei, u the fear of God ;" the genitive Dei 
is necessarily objective or passive, because timor denotes a feeling in 
some other subject, of which God is the object, and cannot be the sub- 
ject. Sometimes the meaning of both substantives is such, that the 
genitive may be either active or passive ; thus, when the expression 
Amor Dei means the love which God has to us, Dei is active or sub- 
jective ; but when it means the love which we have to God, Dei is 
passive or oojective. In such cases the sense in which the genitive is 
used must be determined by the author's meaning. 

Obs. 2. Hence it often happens that a noun governs two substan- 
tives, one of which limits it subjectively, and the other objectively; as, 
Agamemnonis belli gloria, u Agamemnon's glory in war," Nep. 
Here Agamemnonis limits gloria subjectively, and belli limits it ob- 
jectively. So, Illius administrate provincice, Cic. 

Obs. 3. The governing noun is often omitted, but only, however, 
when the expression itself readily suggests the noun to be supplied; 
as, Ad Diance, sc. cedem; or when it can be readily supplied from the 
preceding or following words. 

Obs. 4. Instead of the genitive of the personal pronoun governed 
by the noun, it is more common to use the possessive adjective pro- 
noun agreeing with it; as, mens pater, rather than pater mei. So also 
instead of the genitive of a noun, a possessive adjective is sometimes 
used; as, Causa regia, for regis causa; Herilis filius , forfilius heri. 

Obs. 5. The dative is often used instead of the genitive, to limit 
a noun as to its object: as. Fratri cedes, for fratris, the house of my 
brother ; prcesidium reis, a defence to the accused. For this construc- 
tion see § 110. 

Rule VII. A substantive added to another to 
express a property or quality belonging to it, is 
put in the genitive or ablative ; as, 

Vir summce prudentice , or summd prudentid. A man of great wisdom. 
Puer probce inddlis, or probd indole A boy of a good disposition. 



5 106 SYNTAX. THE GENITIVE. 209 

EXPLANATION. — Under this rule the latter substantive in the genitive or 
ablative must denote a part or property of the former, otherwise it does not 
belong to this rule. The latter substantive, also, has commonly an adjective 
joined with it, as in the above examples, though this is not essential to the rule 
and sometimes it is found without it; as, Homo nihili. 

Obs. 6. There is no certain rule by which to determine when the 
genitive is to be used, or when the ablative, though in some phrases 
we find the genitive only is used ; as, vir imisubsellii, u a person of 
the lowest rank;" homo nullius stipendii, " a man of no experi- 
ence in war," Sallust, Magni formica laboris, &c. In others the ab- 
lative only; as, Es bono animo, Be of good courage. Sometimes 
both are used in the same sentence; as, Adolescens eximid spe, sum- 
ma virtutis. In prose the ablative is more common than the geni- 
tive. 

Obs. 7. Sometimes, instead of the construction under this rule, the 
adjective is put with the former substantive; as, Vir gravitate et pru- 
deniid prcestans, Cic. So, Vir prostatitis ingenii, prcBstanti ingenio, 
prcestans ingenio, and (poetically) prcestans ingenii, are all used. 
And sometimes, when the adjective takes the case of the former sub- 
stantive, the latter substantive, especially by the poets, is by a Greek 
construction put in the accusative, instead of the genitive or ablative; 
as, Miles fractus membra, instead of membris. Os humerosque simi- 
lis deo, instead of Ore humerisque similis deo. The accusative, in 
this construction, may be regarded as governed by secundum, or quod 
attinet ad, meaning " according to," or " in respect of," &c. (§ 128. 
Exc. and Note.) and corresponding to the Greek xara. See Gr. 
Gram. § 142, Obs 11. 

Adjectives taken as Substantives. 

Rule VIII. An adjective in the neuter gender 
without a substantive governs the genitive; as, 

Multum pecunice, Much money. 

Idnegotii, That business. 

EXPLANATION.— Under this rule, the adjective, without a substantive ex- 
pressed, is regarded as a substantive, and so capable of being limited by the geni- 
tive, as under Rule VI. 

06$. 8. The adjectives thus used are generally such as signify 
quantity; multum. phis, plurimum, tantum, quantum. The pronouns, 
hoc, id, illud, istud, quod, quid, with its compounds. Also summum, 
ultimum, extremum, dimidium, medium, aliud, &c. To these may be 
added several neuter adjectives in the plural, used in a partitive 
sense; as, angusta vidrum, the narrow parts of the road, opaca loco- 
rum; antiqua foederum ; cuncta camporum, &c. 

Note. — Such adjectives followed by a genitive are almost always either in the 
nominative or accusative 

Obs. 9. Most of these adjectives may have their substantives with 
which they agree; but the more common construction is with the 
genitive; as, tantum spei, so much hope; quid multiris? what kind 
of a woman? aliquid forma ; quid hoc ret est i 

18* 



210 SYNTAX. THE GENITIVE. § 107 

Obs. 10. Quod and quicquid followed by a genitive, include the idea 
of universality ; as, quod agri, n what of land," i. e. " all the land;" 
quicquid civium, " whatever of citizens," i. e. " all the citizens;" 
quicquid deorum, " all the gods," 

Obs. 11. Opus and usus, signifying " need," sometimes govern the 
genitive ; as, Argenti opus f uit, " there was need of money." — Liv. 
Procemii non semper usus est, " There is not always need of an intro- 
duction." Quinct. In general, these words govern the ablative. § 118, 
R. XXII. 



§ 107. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 

Rule IX. Verbal adjectives, or such as imply 
an operation of mind, govern the genitive; as, 

Avidus glorice, Desirous of glory. 

Ignarus fraudis , Ignorant of fraud. 

Memor beneficiorum, Mindful of favors. 

EXPLANATION. — The genitive in this construction as in § 106. is used to 
limit the application of the general term or adjective by which it is governed, 
and may be rendered by of, or, in respect of prefixed; thus, in the first example, 
Avidus expresses the possession of desire generally; the genitive gloria limits 
it to a certain object, " glory," and so of the other examples. 

OBSERVATIONS 

Obs. 1. Adjectives governing the genitive under this 
rule are, 

1st. Verbals in AX ; as, capax, edax, ferax, fugax, pervicax, 

tenax, &c. 
2d. Participials in NS and TUS ; as, amanSj appUens, cupiens, 

patiens, impatiens, sitiens ; consultus, doctus, expertus, inex~ 

pertus. insuetus, insolitus. &c. 
3d. Adjectives denoting various affections of the mind ; such as, " 

1. Desire and Disgust, as, avarus, avidus, cupidus, studiosus; 
fastidiosus, &c. with many other verbals in -idus, and -osus. 

2. Knowledge and Ignorance : as, callidus, certus, conscius, 
gnarus, peritus, prudens, &c; — Ignarus, incertus, inscius, im- 
prudens, imperitus, rudis, &c. 3. Memory or Forgetful- 
ness ; as, memor, immZmor, &c. 4. Care and Negligence ; 
as, anxius, curiosus, solicitus, providus, diligens ; — incuriosus 
securus, negligens, &c. 5. Fear and Confidence ; as, pavi ■ 
dus, timidus, trepidus ; — impavidus, interritus, &c. 6. Guilt 
and Innocence j as, noxius, reus, suspectus, compertus ; — in. 
noxius, innocens, insons, &c. 



§ 107 SYNTAX. THE GENITIVE. 211 

4lh. To these may be added many other adjectives of similar sig- 
nification, which are limited by, or govern such genitives ; as, 
animi, ingenii, mentis, irce, militias., belli, laboris, rerum, eevi % 
morum, zindfidei. 

Obs. 2. Verbals in NS are used both as adjectives and participles, 
but usually with some difference of meaning ; as, patiens algoris, 
" capable of bearing cold j" patiens algorem, " actually bearing cold;" 
a/nans virtidis, l ' loving virtue," — spoken of the disposition; amans 
virtutem, " loving virtue," — spoken of the act. So also, doctus 
grammat'iccB. ll skilled in grammar;" doctus grammaticam, li one who 
has studied grammar." 

Obs. 3. Many of these adjectives vary their construction 
so that instead of the genitive they sometimes take after them, 

1st. An infinitive clause ; as, certus ire, " determined to go." Ovid. 
Cantare per'iti. Virg. Anxius quid opus facto sit. Sail. 

2d. An accusative with a preposition • as, avidior ad rem ; ani- 
mus capax ad prcecepta ; ad fraudem callidus ; potens in res 
bellicosas, &c. 

3d. An ablative with a preposition ; as, Avidus in pecuniis, 
ki Eager in regard to money." Anxius defamd ; super scelBre 
suspectus; &c, 

4th. An ablative without a preposition ; as, Arte rudis, " Rude in 
art ;" regnicrimine in sons ; prcestans ingenio. 

Obs. 4. Some adjectives usually governing the dative, sometimes 
govern the genitive, such as similis, dissimilis, &c. See § 111. Obs. 2 

Rule X. Partitives and words placed partitive- 
ly, comparatives, superlatives, interrogatives, and 
some numerals, govern the genitive plural; as, 

Aliquis philosophdrum, Some one of the philosophers 

Senior fr air urn. The elder of the brothers. 

Doctissimus Romanorum, The most learned of the Romans. 

Quis nostrum ? Which of us? 

Una musarum, One of the muses. 

Octdvus sapientium, The eighth of the wise men. 

EXPLANATION. — A Partitive is a word which signifies a part of any num- 
ber of persons or things, in contradistinction to the whole. A word placed 
partitively, is one which though it does not signify a part, yet is sometimes 
used to distinguish apart from the whole; as, expediti militum, the light armed 
(of the) soldiers. The partitive, when an adjective, takes the gender of the 
whole and governs it in the genitive plural ; or. if a collective noun, in the geni- 
tive singular ; and in this case the partitive takes the gender of the noun under- 
stood : as, doctissimus sua cetatis. 



212 SYNTAX.— THE GENITIVE. § 107 

06s. 5. Partitives are such words j as, ullus, nullus, solus, alius, 
uter, uterque, neuter, alter, aliquis, quidam, quisquis, quicunque, quis ? 
qui * quot ? tot, aliquot, nonnulli, plerlque ,multi , pauci, medius, &c. 

Words are used partitively in such expressions as the following ; 
mperi deorum, sancte deorum, degentres canum, piscium femincc. To 
which add, omnis, cunctus, nemo; as, Omnes Macedonum ) nemo nos- 
trum. 

Obs. 6. The comparative with the genitive denotes one of two, the 
superlative denotes a part of a number greater than two; as, Major fra- 
trum, the elder of two brothers : maxlmus fratrum, the eldest of three 
or more. So also uter, alter and neuter generally refer to two, quis, 
alius, and nullus, to more than two ; as, uter nostrum, which of us 
(two?) quis nostrum, which of us (three or more ?) Nostrum aud 
vestrum are used after partitives, seldom nostri and vestri. 

Obs. 7. The partitive is sometimes understood ; as, Fies nobilium 
tu quoque fontium, (sc. unus~) Hor. 

Obs. 8. Instead of the genitive after the partitive, the ablative is 
often found governed by de, e, ex, or in ; or the accusative with inter 
or ante; a.s,unus e stoicis ; ante omnes pulcherrimus ; inter reges opu- 
lent issimus. 

Rule XL Adjectives of plenty or want govern 
the genitive or ablative ; as, 

Plenus ira or ira, Full of anger. 

Inops rationis, or ratione, Void of reason. 

EXPLANATION.— As in Rule IX. the adjective here is a general term, but 
limited in its application by the genitive or ablative following it. 

Obs. 9. Among adjectives denoting plenty or want, a considerable 
variety of construction is found. 

Some govern the genitive only : as, benignus, exsors, impos, irnpo* 
tens, irritus, liberdlis, muniflcus, &c. 

Some govern the ablative only -, as, beatus, mutilus, tumidus, turgU 
dus. 

Some govern the genitive more frequently ; as, compos, consors, 
egenus, exhceres, expers, fertllis, indigus, parens, pauper, prodigus, 
sterilis, prosper, insatidtus, insatiabilis. 

Some govern the ablative more frequently ; as, abundans, alicnus m 
cassus, ext orris , fir mus , foetus, frequens, gravis, gravidus, jejunus\ 
infirmus, liber, locuples, Icetus, mactus, nudus, onustus, orbus, pol- 
lens, satidtus, tenuis, truncus, viduus. 

Some govern the genitive or ablative indifferently ,• as, copiosus, 
dives, fecundus, ferax, immunis. indnis, inops, largus, modicus, im» 
modicus, nimius, opulentus, plenus, potens, purus, refertus, satur $ 
vacuus, uber. 

Obs. 10. Many of these adjectives are sometimes limited by a pre- 
position and its case ; as, Locus copiosus a frumento. Cic. Ab omni 
re paratus. Id. Parens in victu. Plin. In affect ibus potentissimus. 
Quinct. Potens in res bellicas. Liv. &c. 



§108 



SYNTAX. THE GENITIVE. 213 



§ 108. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 
Rule XII. Sum governs the genitive of a per- 
son or thing to which its subject belongs as a pos- 
session, property, or duty; as, 

Est regis, It belongs to the king. 

Hominis est errare, It is characteristic of man to err, 

EXPLANATION.— The genitive in this construction is supposed to be governed 
by the substantive, officium, munus, res, negotium, opus) &c. understood. 
(When it is expressed) the genitive is governed by it according to Rule VI.) 
The verb is in the third person, — often has an infinitive or clause for its norai> 
native, and may be rendered in any way by which the sense is expressed ; such 
as, it belongs to, — is the property — the part— the duty — the peculiarity — the cAa« 
racter of, &c. The following are examples, 

Insipientis est dicer e non putdram, It is the part of a fool, &c. 
Militum est suo duci parere, It is the duty of soldiers, &c* 

Laudare se vani est, It is the mark of a vain man, &c. 

So the folio wing^-Jtrrogantis est negligcre quid de se quisque sentu 
at, Cic. Pecus est Melibozi. Virg. Hcec sunt hominis, Ter. PaupZ* 
ris est numerdre pecus, Ov. Temeritas est florentis cetatis, prudentia 
senectutis, Cic. jintiqui moris fuit, Plin. 

Obs. 1. Sometimes the genitive may be governed by the preceding 
word repeated after est; as, Hoc pecus est (pecus) Meliboei; Hie liber 
est (liber) fratris. Sometimes the genitive depends on some other 
substantive understood,- as, Quce res evertendce reipublicce solent esse 
(instrumenta.) Regium imperium quod initio conservandoz libertatis 
(causa,) et augendce reipublicce (institutum) fulrat. 

Obs. 2. Instead of the genitive of the personal pronouns, the nomina- 
tive neuter of the possessive is commonly used, agreeing with officii 
um, munus &c. understood; as, Tuum est, it is your duty; instead of 
tui; meum est, it is my part ; instead of mei. 

Obs. 3. If the verb be in the infinitive, the posssessive pronoun 
must be in the accusative; as, Scio tuum esse, " I know it is your 
duty;" and if a substantive be expressed, the possessive must agree 
with it in gender, number, and case; as, Hce partes fuerunt tucs, 
(equivalent to tuum fuit, or tua rum par iium fuit.) It was your part. 

Rule XIII. Miser vor, miser esco, and sat ago , go- 
vern the genitive ; as, 

Miserere civium tubrwm, Pity your countrymen. 
Satagit rerum suarum, He is busy with his own affairs. 

EXPLANATION .—The genitive, in this construction, has been supposed to 
be governed by such a noun as negotio, causa, re, &c. understood; governed by 
the prepositions de, a, in, or the like ; as, Miserere de causa civium, &c. We 
consider it better, however, to regard these genitives as governed directly by 
the verb, and expressing, as in Greek, the cause or origin of the feeling which 
the verb expresses. See Gr. Gram. § 144. Rule XIV 



214 SYNTAX. THE GENITIVE. § 109 

Obs, 4. Many other verbs denoting some affection of the mind are 
sometimes followed by a genitive, denoting that, with regard to which, 
or on account of which, the affection exists. These are ango, decipior ) 
desipio, discrucior, fallo, fallor, fastidio ) invideo, lector , miror, 
pendeo, studeo, vereor, &c. Thus^ Absurde facis qui angas te animi. 
Plaut. Discrucior animi, Ter. Fallebar sermdnis* Plaut. Lcetor 
malorum. Virg. These verbs have commonly a different construe* 
tion. Note 2. 

Note 1.— The first and second of these examples resemble the peculiar Greek 
construction, explained Gr. Gram. § 148. 06s. 2. 

Obs. 5. Several verbs especially among the poets, are found with 
the genitive in imitation of the Greek construction, Gr. Gram. §144. 
Rule XVI. and XVII. These are abstineo, desino, desisto, quiesco ) 
regno ; also, adipiscor, condrco, credo, frustror, furo, laudo, libhro, 
levo, participo, prohibeo ; thus, abstineto irarum* Hor. Desine que* 
relarum. Hor. Regndvit populorum. Hor. Levas me laborum. Plaut. 

Note 2. — All these verbs, however, in Ohs. 4 and 5, have for the most part a 
different construction, being followed sometimes by the accusative as an active 
verb, and more frequently by the accusative or ablative with a preposition. 

Rule XIV. Recordor^ memini, reminiscor, and 
obliviscor, govern the genitive or accusative ; as, 

Recordor lectionis, or lectionem, I remember the lesson. 

Obliviscor injuria, or injuriam, I forget an injury. 

EXPLANATION.— When these verbs are followed by an accusative, they are 
considered active, and fall under Rule XX. But when a genitive follows them 
they are regarded as neuter, and the genitive denotes that in regard to which 
the memory, &c, is exercised. 

Obs. 6. These verbs are often construed with an infinitive or some 
part of a sentence, instead of the genitive or accusative ; as, Memini 
videre virg%nem. Ter. 

Obs. 7. Recordor and memini, signifying to remember, are some- 
times followed by an ablative with de. And memini signifying to 
make mention of, has a genitive or an ablative with de. Ei venit in 
mentem* being equivalent to recordatur, has a genitive after it ; as, 
Ei venit in mentem potestatis tuce. 

N. B. For the genitive with verbs of accusing, See § 122, 
with verbs of valuing, § 122. R. XXVIII; with Passive 
verbs, § 126 $ with Impersonal verbs, § 1 13 ; with Adverbs, 
§ 135 ; denoting place, § 130, R. XXXVI and XXXIX. 



$ 109. CONSTRUCTION OF THE DATIVE. 

1. The Dative is used to express the remote object to which any 
quality or action, or any state or condition of things tends, or, to 
which they refer. This tendeucy is usually expressed in English by 
the words TO or FOR. Hence, 



§ li.0-11 SYNTAX. THE DATIVE. 215 

2. The Dative in Latin is *ove ned by, or denotes the object referred 
to, by Nouns, Adjectives and Verbs. 

3. A use of the Dative common in Greek usually called the Da- 
tive Redundant, has also been imitated in Latin. See Gr. Gram. 
§ 145. 2. The following are examples. Quo tantuniMiKi dexter abis. 
Virg. Fur mi hi cs. Plaut. Tongilium mihi eduxit. Cic. Ubi nunc 
nobis dtus Hie magister? Virg. Ecce tibi Sebosus. Cic. Suo sibi 
g7a<i io hunc jugulo. 



$110. DATIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES. 

Rule XV. Substantives frequently govern the 
dative of their object ; as, 

Hostis virtutibus] An enemy to virtue. 

Exitium pecjri, Destruction to the flock. 

Obtemperantia legibus, Obedience to the laws. 

EXPLANATION.— Under this rule, the governing substantive generally de- 
notes an affection, or some advantage, or disadvantage, or act, which is limited 
as to its object by the dative following it, as in the above examples. 

Obs. 1. Rule. The dative of the possessor is governed by 
substantives denoting the thing possessed ; as, 

Ei vend in mentem, It came into his mind. 

Cui corpus porrigitw, Whose body is extended. 

Obs. 2. The dative in this construction is said to be used for, or in- 
stead of the genitive, as in Rule VI. There are but few instances, 
however, in which the genitive, under that rule could with propriety 
be changed for the dative. On the other hand, when the dative is 
used, the genitive would fail to express so precisely the idea intended. 
In this construction, the noun governing the dative is connected with 
a verb in such a way as clearly to show, that the dative is rather the 
object of that which is expressed by the verb and noun together, than 
under the government of the noun alone. Thus in the first example, 
ei, denotes the person to whom that which is expressed by venit in 
mentem\ occurred. So, corpus porrigHur , states what was done to 
the person represented by cui. The principle of this construction 
will be more manifest from what is stated, § 123. Exp. 



$111. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 
Rule XVI. Adjectives signifying profit or dis- 
profit, likeness or unlikeness govern the dative; 
as, 

Utilis bello, Useful for war. 

Similis vatri, Like his father. 



216 SYNTAX. THE DATIVE. §111 

EXPLANATION. — The dative under this rule, like the genitive under Rule 
IX. is used to limit the meaning of the adjective to a particular object or end, 
to which the quality expressed by it is directed. Thus in the first example 
Htilis means u useful' 7 in a general sense, hello limits the usefulness intended 
to a particular object, "war. 7 ' The dative thus used is rendered by its ordi- 
nary signs to or for, but sometimes by other prepositions or without a preposi- 
tion, as in the last example. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. To this rule belong adjectives signifying, 

1st. Profit, or disprofit ; as, benignus, bonus, commodus, felix ;- 

damnosus, dims, exitiosus, funestus, &c. 
2d. Pleasure, or pain ; as, Acceptus, dulcis, grdtus, jucundus, 

Icetus, suavis ; — Acerbus, amdrus, ingrdtus, molestus, &c. 
3d. Friendship, or hatred ; as, JEquus, amicus, blandus, carus, 

dedltus, fldus; — adversus. asper, crudelis, infestus, &c. 
4th. Perspicuity, or obscurity ; as, apertus, certus, compertus, con- 

spicuus, notus ; — ambiguus, dubius, ignotus, obscurus, &c. 
5th. Propinquity ; as, finitlmus, propior, proximus, propinquusj 

socius, viclnus, affinis 7 &c. 
6th. Fitness, or unfitness ; as, Aptus, apposilus, habilis, idoneus, 

opportunus / — ineptus, inhabilis, importunus, &.c. 
7th. Ease, or difficulty; as, facllis, levis, obvius, pervius ; — dif- 
ficilis, arduus, gravis. Also those denoting propensity or 
readiness ; as, pronus, procllvis, propensus, &c. 
Sth. Equality, or inequality,- likeness, or unlikeness ; as, AEqualis, 
aqucevus, par, compar ; — inaqua/is, impar, dispar, discors ;— 
similis, amulus ; — dissimtlis, alienus, &c. 
9th. Several adjectives compounded with CON ; as, cogndtus, 

congruus, consonus, conveniens, continens, &,c. 
10th. Verbal adjectives in -BILIS ; as, Amabilis, terribilis, opta- 

bills, and the like. 
Obs. 2. Exc. The following adjectives have sometimes the dative 
after them, and sometimes the genitive, viz: Affinis similis, commu- 
nis, par, proprius; finitlmus, fldus, conterminiis, superstes, conscius, 
cequalis, contrarius, and adversus; as, similis tibi, or tui. 

Obs. 3. Adjectives signifying motion or tendency to a thing, take 
after them the accusative with ad, rather than the dative; as, procli- 
vus, pronus, propensus, velox, celer, tardus, plger, &c. thus; piger ad 
poenas. Ov. 

Obs. 4. Adjectives signifying usefulness or fitness, and the contrary, 
often take the accusative with ad; as, utllis ad nullam rem, good for 
nothing. 

Obs. 5. Propior and proximus take after them the dative, or the 
accusative governed by ad understood; as, Propius vero; proximus 
Pompeium, (sc. ad.) 

Conscius and some other adjectives, govern the dative according to 
this rule, and at the same time a genitive by rule IX; as, Mens sibi 
conscia recti, " a mind conscious to itself of rectitude." Virg. 



§ 112 SYNTAX. THE DATIVE. 217 

Obs. 6. Some adjectives that govern the dative, sometimes, instead 
of the dative, have an ablative with a preposition expressed or un- 
derstood; as, discors secum; alienum nostra amicitid. 

Obs. 7. Idem is sometimes followed by the dative, chiefly in the 
poets; as, Jupiter idem omnibus. Invitum qui servat, idemfacit occU 
denti. In prose idem is followed commonly by quij ac, atque } ut, or 
quam. 



HI 2. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 

Rule XVIL All verbs govern the dative of the 
object or end, to which the action, or state ex- 
pressed by them, is directed ; as. 

Finis venit imperio, An end has come to the empire. 
Animus redit hostibus, Courage returns to the enemy. [self. 

Tibi seris, iibi metis, You sow for yourself, you reap for your- 

EXPLANATION — This rule may be considered as general, applying to all 
cases in which a verb is followed by a dative. When the verb is active, it gov- 
erns its remote object in the dative, not as that upon which the action is exerted, 
but as that to which it is directed, while at the same time, it governs also its im- 
mediate object in the accusative, (§ 123.) If neuter, it will be followed by a dative 
only. 

This rule being applicable to all cases in which a dative follows a verb, is 
too general to be useful, as it could be applied correctly without much discri- 
mination. It will therefore be of more advantage, when it can be done, to 
apply the special rules comprehended under it as follows: 

SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule I. Sum and its compounds govern the da- 
tive, (except possum;) as, 

Prcefuit exercitui, He commanded the army. 

Adfuit precibusj He was present at prayers. 

Rule II. The verb Est, signifying to be, or to 
belong to, governs the dative of the possessor ; as, 

™ , .,. . , ■ C 1. A father is to me, i. e. 

Est mihi pater, ^ I have a father. 

c , . ... S L Mellow apples are to us, i. e. 

Sunt nobis mihapoma, J % We have Xllow apples. 

„ . T . $1.1 know that apples are to us, i. e, 

Sao nobis essepoma, J % j knQW tlm we haye apples> 

EXPLANATION.— In this construction, the dative expresses the person of 
thing, to oifor which the subject spoken of, is, or exists. The verb will always 
be in the third person singular, or plural, in any tense, or in the infinitive. 
This verv common Latin construction will be rendered correctly into English, 

19 



218 SYNTAX. THE DATIVE. § 112 

by the active verb, "have," instead of <( is, v Sec. of which the Latin dative be- 
comes the subject or nominative, and the Latin nominative the object, as is 
shewn in the above examples. 

Obs. 1. The dative is used in a similar manner after for em, suppHo, 
desum and defit ; as, pauper non est cui rerum suppetit usus. He is 
not poor to whom the use of property is supplied, i. e. who has the use 
of property. Hor. So, Si mihi caudaforct. — Defuit ars vobis — Lac 
mihi non defit, &c. 

Rule III. Verbs compounded of satis, bene, and 
male govern the dative; as, 

Legibus satisfecit, He satisfied the laws, 

BenefacSre reipublicm, To benefit the state. 

Obs. 2. These compounds are often written separately, and the 
dative is governed by the combined force of the two words. 

Rule IV. Many verbs compounded with these 
ten prepositions ad, ante, con, — -in, inter, ob, — 
post, pm, sub, and super govern the dative ; as, 

Annue cceptis, Favor our undertakings. 

Verbs governing the dative under this rule are such as the 
following 5 viz. 

1. Accedo, accresco, accumbo, acquiesco, adno, adnato, adequito, 
adh&reo, adsto, adstipulor, advolvor, affulgeo, allabor, allaboro, 
annuo, appareo, applaudo, appropinquo, arrideo, aspiro, assentiorj 
assideo, assisto. assuesco, assurgo. 

2. Antecello, anteeo, antesto, anteverto, 

3. Colludo, concino, consono, convivo. 

4. Incumbo, indormio, indubito, inhio, ingemisco, inhcereo, insidco, 
insideor, insio, insisto, insudo, insulto, invigilo, illacrymo, illudo, 
immineo, immorior, immtiror, impendeo. 

5. Intervenio, intermico, inter cedo, inter cido, inter jaceo. 

6. ObrepOj oblucto, obtrecto, obstrtpo, obmurmuro^ occumbo, oc 
curro, occur so, obsto, obsisto, obvenio. 

7. Postftro, posthabeo, postpono, postpiio, fostscrlbo ; with an 
accusative. 

8. Prcecedo, prcecurro, prceeo, prasideo, prceluceo, prteniteo, prces- 
to, pravaleo, prceverto. 

9. Succedo, succumbo, sufficio, suffragor, subcresco, suboleo, sub- 
jaceo, subrepo. 

10. Supervenio, super curro, super sto. But most verbs compounded 
with super govern the accusative. 

Obs. 3. Some verbs compounded with ab, de, ex, circum, and con* 
tra ; also compounds of di and dis meaning generally u to differ," 
are sometimes followed by the dative. These, however, chiefly ial* 
under Rule XXXI. § 125. 

Obs. 4. Many verbs compounded with prepositions, instead of the 
dative, take the case of the preposition which is sometimes repeated. 



§ 112 SYNTAX. THE DATIVE. 219 

Some neuter verbs so compounded, either take the dative, or, acquir- 
ing an active signification by the force of the preposition, govern the 
accusative by Rule XX. as, Helvetii reliquos G&Wos virtute prsecedunt, 
The Helvetii surpass the other Gavls in bravery. 

Rule V. Verbs govern the dative which signi- 
fy to profit or hurt; — to favor or assist, and the 
contrary ; — to command and obey, to serve and 
resist ; — to threaten and to be angry ; to trust. 

EXPLANATION. — Verbs governing the dative, under this and the preceding rule, 
are always intransitivesortransilives used intransitively, and consequently it is appli- 
cable to the active voice only. The dative after passive verbs, does not come under 
these rules, but belongs to $ 126. Rule XXXIII. 

Obs. 5. The verbs under this rule are such as the fol- 
lowing ; 

1 st. To profit or hurt ; as, 

ProficiO) prosum, placeo, commodo, prospicio, caveo, metuo, timeo, con- 
*ulo, for prospicio. Likewise, Noceo, officio, incommodo, di$pliceo,&c, 

2d. To favor or assist, and the contrary ; as, 

Faveo, gratiilor, gratificor, grator, ignosco, indulgeo, parco, adu~ 
lor , plaudo, blandior, lenocinor, palpor^ assentor, subparasitor. Like- 
wise, Auxilior, adminiculor, subvenio, succurro, patrocinor, inedeor, 
medicor, opitulor. Likewise, Derdgo, detraho, invideo, amulor, 

3d. To command and obey, to serve and resist $ as, 

Imptro, pr<2cipio , mando ; modZror, for modum adhibeo. Likewise, 
Pareo, ausculto, obedio, obsiquor. obtZmpero, morem gZro, morig£ror } 
obsecundo. Likewise, Famiilor, servio, inservio, ministro, ancillor. 
Likewise, Repugno, obsto, reluclor, renltor, resisto, refragor, adversor, 

4th. To threaten and to be angry $ as, 

Minor, comminor, irascor, succenseo. 

5th. To trust 5 as, Fido, conftdo, credo, diffzdo. 

To these add, Nubo, exccUo, h&rco, supplico, cedo, despero, op^ror % 
prcestolor, prcevaricor • recipio, to promise ,• renuncio ; respondeo, to 
answer, or satisfy; tempero, studeo ; vaco, to apply; convicior. 

Exc. Jubeo, juvo, lado, and offendo, govern the accusative. 

Obs. 6. Many of these verbs, however, are variously construed, the 
same verb sometimes governing the dative according to this rule j 
sometimes taken in an active sense they govern the accusative by 
rule XX. They are followed by an accusative with a preposition, 
and sometimes by an ablative with a preposition. Thus, Impendtre 
Q-licui, or aliquem, or in aliquem, to hang over ; congrutre alicui 
cum aliqua re, inter se, to agree. 

Oos. 7. Many verbs when they vary their construction, vary their 
meaning also; as, Timeo tibi, de te, pro te, signifies, u I fear for you," 
i. e. for your safety ; but timeo te, means, " I fear you/' " I dread 



220 SYNTAX. — THE DATIVE. § 113 

you." Consulo tibi, is " I consult for you," i. e. " for your safety," 
consulo te, means " I consult you," " I ask your advice ;" and so 
of others. 

Obs. 8. Verbs signifying motion or tendency to a thing instead of 
the dative have usually the preposition ad or in with the accusative ; 
as, Clamor it ad coelumj seldom and chiefly with the poets, coelo. 



* 113. DATIVE GOVERNED BY IMPERSONALS. 

Rule XVIII . An impersonal verb governs the 
dative; as, 

ExpHit reipublicce, It is profitable for the state. 
EXPLANATION. — This rule applies to the dative governed by the passive of 
all those verbs which in the active voice govern the dative only, according to 
§ 112, Rules III, IV. and V". — the passive of all intransitives, being used onlyim- 
personally, § 85. 3. Thus, Favetur mihi, tl I am favored," not egofaveor. When 
the passives of such verbs are used personally, then the verb is to be consider- 
ed as used in an active sense, § 112. Obs. 6. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. These verbs Potest, coepit, incipitj desinit, debet and solet, 
before the infinitive of im personals, become impersonal also \ as, 
Non potest credi tibi, " You cannot be believed." 

Obs. 2. Some verbs are used both personally and impersonally ; as, 
doleo, " I grieve ;" dolet mihi, u It grieves me," i. e. U I grieve. " 
So also verbs commonly used impersonally sometimes have a subject 
in the nominative, and are of course used personally. This is the 
case especially with such nominatives as these, — Id, hoc, Mud, quid, 
quod, nihil, &c. as, Nonne hcec te pudent ? u Are you not ashamed of 
these things?" 

Obs. 3. An infinitive mood or part of a sentence is commonly join- 
ed to an impersonal verb, which in fact may be regarded as its sub- 
ject ; as, Delectat me studere, " It delights me to study," i. e. " study 
delights me." § 101. Obs. 3.— § 144. Obs. 1. 

Obs. 4. The dative after impersonals is sometimes understood; as* 
Faciat quod libet, (sc. sibi.) 

Exc. I. Refer t and Interest govern the geni- 
tive; as. 

Refert patris, It concerns my father. 

Interest omnium, It is the interest of all. 

But mea, tua, sua, nostra, vestra, are put in the accusa- 
tive plural neuter ; as, 

Non mea refert, It does not concern me. 

Obs. 5. These pronouns must be considered as agreeing with such 
a substantive as negotia-, and that mea, for example, is equal to negotia 
met. This then seems clearly to shew that such constructions aft, 



§ 113 SYNTAX. THE DATIVE. 221 

refer t patris are elliptical, and that the word to be supplied is in the ac- 
cusative plural neuter ; thus, refert patris, (sc. ad negotia,) lit. it 
refers to the affairs of my father ; Interest omnium, i. e. est inter om* 
nium negotia. " it is among the affairs of all ;" refert mea, i. e. ad 
mea negotia, equivalent to ad negotia mei. 

Obs. 6. Instead of the genitive, these verbs sometimes take the ac- 
cusative with a preposition ; as, refert ad me, for refert mea, i. e. mei. 
Sometimes they are used absolutely without a case expressed. 

Exc. II. These five Miser et, poenitet, pudet, 
tcedet, and pi get, govern the accusative of the im- 
mediate, with the genitive of the remote ob- 
ject; as, 

Mis tret me tui, I pity you. 

Poenitet me peccati } I repent of my sin. 

Tcedet me vitce, I am weary of life. 

Pudet me culpce, I am ashamed of my fault. 

EXPLANATION. — These examples may be rendered literally thus; It grieves 
me on account of you, i. e. ergo, or causa tui. — It repents me of my sin. — It wearies 
me of life. — It shames me of my fault. For the method of rendering impersonal 
verbs in a personal form, as in the above examples, see § 35. 2. and 6. 

Obs. 7. The infinitive mood or part of a sentence may supply the 
the place of the genitive; as, poe?iitetmepecc(isse, or quod peccav trim. 
After Mistret, it is sometimes supplied by the accusative governed by 
quod attinet ad, understood ; as, Menedemivicem mistret me. i. e. quod 
attinet ad vicem. Ter. The accusative is sometimes understood j as, 
Sceltrum si bene poenitet (scil. nos.) Hor. 

Obs. 8. The preterites of these verbs in the passive form, govern 
the same cases as the active ; as, Miseritum est me tuarum fortuna* 
rum. Ter. Miserescit, and miseretur are sometimes used imper- 
sonally ; as, Miserescit me tui. Ter. Miser eatur te fratrum ; Neque 
me tui, neque tudrum liberorum misertri potest. Cic. 

Exc. III. Decet, delect at, juvat, and oportet, 
govern the accusative of a person with the infini- 
tive; as, 

Delectat me studere, It delights me to study. 

Non decet te rxxari, It does not become you to scold. 

Obs. 9. These verbs are sometimes used personally ; as, Parvum 
parva decent. Hor. Decet sometimes governs the dative; as. It a no- 
bis decet. Ter. 

Obs. 10. Oportet, instead of the infinitive, elegantly takes the sub- 
junctive with ut, ''as/' understood; as, Sibi quisque consulat oportet. 
Cic. When followed by the perfect participle, esse, or fuisse is under- 
stood, which being supplied, makes the perfect infinitive. 

Obs. 11. Fallit , fugit , prcetZrit , latet when used impersonally, are 
construed with the accusative and infinitive; as, fugit me ad te scri- 
bere, Cic. 

19* 



222 SYNTAX. THE DATIVE. § 114 

$ 114. VERBS GOVERNING TWO DATIVES. 

Rule XIX. The verbs sum, do, habeo, and some 
others, with the dative of the object, govern also 
the dative of the end, or design; as, 

1. Est mihi voluptati, \ 5 * s to ™ e for a &^«*i \ «• 
^o* c/i/u-^ , ^ j t 1§ ^ Qr ^ rin g Sj a pleasure to me. 

2. Hoc misit mihi muneri, This he sent as a present to me. 

3. Ducltur honori tibi, j jj j« ^°"f 1 t0 y h ° U for ? !I h ° n0r ' ! - * 

; I It is reckoned an honor to you. 

EXPLANATION. — In these examples it is manifest that the words voluptati, 
honori, and muneri, each express the end or design for which the thing spoken 
of, or referred to, is, is reckoned, is sent to the object expressed by the other da- 
tives, mihi and tibi. See also Obs. 3. 

The verb sum, with the dative of the end, may be variously rendered accord- 
ing to the sense ; as, by the words, brings, affords, serves, &c. For, the sign 
of the dative, is often omitted, especially after sum. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. Verbs governing two datives under this rule, are chiefly, 
sum, fore, habeo, do. verto, relinquo, tribuo, duco % and a few others. 

Obs. 2. Instead of the dative of the end, the nominative after est, 
&c. or the accusative, in apposition with the object of the preceding 
verb, expresses the same thing; as. Amor Est exiiium pecdri, for 
exitio; Se Achilli comitem esse datum dicit, for comiti. In the first ex- 
ample, exitium is the nominative after est, by Rule V. In the second, 
comitem is in apposition with se, by Rule I. 

Obs. 3. Intransitives, such as sum. fore, fio, eo, curro, proficiscor, 
venio, cedo, suppedito, are followed by two datives, as in the first ex- 
ample; transitive verbs in the active voice, besides the two datives, 
ha^ve an accusative expressed or understood by Rule XX. as in the 
second example; and in the passive voice two datives, as in the third 
example, the one by rule XXIX. and the other by this rule- 

Obs. 4. The dative of the object (commonly a person,) is often to 
be supplied; as, Est exemplo, indicio, prcesidio, usui. &cc. scil. mihi, 
alicui, hominibus, or some such word. So, pontre, oppon&re pignd- 
ri, sc. alicui, "to pledge;" cantre receptui, sc. suis militibus, "to 
sound a retreat;" habere cur<£, questui. odio, voluptati, studio, &c. sc. sibi. 

Obs. 5. To this rale is sometimes referred the forms of naming, 
so common in Latin; such as, Est mihi nomen Alexandroj Cui cog' 
nomen Iulo additur. The construction, § 97. Exc. 2, is much better. 

Obs. 6. From constructions under this rule, should be distinguished 
those in which the second dative may be governed by another noun 
in the dative, according to § 110. 

N. B. For the Dative with the Accusative, see y 123. 

For the Dative after the Passive voice, see § 126. 
For the Dative after Particles, see v 135. Obs. 3. and 
R. XL VII.— After Hei and Vce, Y 117. Obs. 3. 



^ 115, 16 SYNTAX. THE ACCUSATIVE. 223 

$ 115. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 

It The Accusative, in Latin, is used to express the immediate object 
of a transitive (or active) verb, — or, in other words, that on which its ac- 
tion is exerted, and which is affected by it. 

2. It is used to express the object to which something tends or relates* 
in which sense it is governed by a preposition, expressed or understood. 
When used to express the remote object of a transitive verb, or certain 
relations of measure, distance, time, and place, the preposition is usually 
omitted. 



$ 116. ACCUSATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 

Rule XX. A transitive verb in the active voice 
governs the accusative; as, 

Ama Deum, Love God. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule I. A transitive deponent verb governs the 
accusative ; as, 

Reverere parentes, Reverence your parents. 

Rule II. An intransitive verb may govern a noun 
of kindred signification in the accusative; as, 

Pugnare pugnam, To fight a battle. 

EXPLANATION— These rules apply to all verbs which have an accusative as their 
immediate object ; and that accusative may be any thing used substantively, whether 
it be a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive mood, or clause of a sentence. Intransitives under 
Rule II. are often followed by the ablative, with a preposition expressed or understood , 
as, Ire (in) itinere. Gaudere (cum) gaudio, &c . 

Obs. 1. Verbs signifying to name, choose, reckon, constitute, and 
the like, besides the accusative of the object, take also the accusative 
of the name, office, character, &c, ascribed to it; as, Urbem Romam 
vocavit: He called the city Rome. All such verbs in the passive, 
have the same case after as before them, § 103, Exp. 

Obs. 2. Verbs commonly intransitive, are sometimes used in a tran- 
sitive sense, and are therefore followed by an accusative under this rulej 
thus, 

Transitive. Intransitive. 

Abhor erefamam, to dread infamy. Abhorrere a litlbus, to be averse &c. 
A bol ere monument a, to abolish &c. Memoria abolevit, memory failed. 
Declindre ictum., to avoid a blow. Declinare loco, to remove from, &c. 
Laborare arma, to forge arms. Laborare morbo, to be ill. 
Mordri iter, to stop. Morari in urbe, to stay in the city. 



224 SYNTAX. THE ACCUSATIVE. $ 116 

Obs. 3. The Accusative after many intransitive verbs depends on a pre- 
position understood ; as Morientem nomine clamat ; Meas queror fortu- 
nas ; Num id lacrymat virgo ; Quicquid delirant reges, plectuntur Achi- 
vi ; Stygias juravimus undas, &c. In which and similar senten- 
ces the prepositions, ob, propter, circa, per, ad, in, &c. may be sup 
plied. 

This construction of intransitive verbs is most common with the neu- 
ter accusatives id, quid, aliquid, quicquid, nihil, idem, illud, tantum, 
quantum, hoc, multa, alia, pauca, &c. 

Obs. 4. The accusative after many verbs depends on a 
preposition with which they are compounded. This is the 
the case, 

1st. With intransitive verbs ; as, Gentes qua mare illud adjacent, " the 
nations which border upon the sea ;" So, ineunt prcslium, adire 
provinciam, transcurrtre mare, alloqvor te, &c. Thus compound- 
ed, many verbs seem to become transitive in sense, and so govern 
the accusative by this rule. In general, however, they fall under 
Rule LII. 
2d. With transitive verbs, in which case two accusatives follow, one 
governed by the verb, and another by the preposition ; as, Omnem 
equitatum pontem transducit, " He leads all the cavalry over the 
bridge." Hellespontum copias trajecit. Here also the second 
accusative falls under Rule LII. 

Note. — After most verbs, however compounded with prepositions governing 
the accusative, the preposition is repeated before it ; as, Ccesar sa ad neminem 
adjunxit. 

Obs. 5. The accusative after a transitive verb is sometimes under- 
stood; as, Turn prora avert it, sc. se; flumina prcucipitant, scil. se ; faci- 
am vituld, sc. sacra. Sometimes the verb is omitted. 

Obs. 6. Rule. The infinitive mood or part of a sentence 
is often used as the object of a transitive verb, instead of 
the accusative ; as, 

Da mihifallere t Give me to deceive. 

Cupio me esse clementem, I desire to be gentle. 

_, M , , ) They determined that they would 

Statuerunt ut naves conscenderent, > J . , J 

Note 2. — In such constructions, the subject of the clause is sometimes by a 
Greek idiom put in the accusative, as the object of the verb; as, Nosti Marcel- 
lum, quam tardus sit ; instead of Nosti quam tardus Marreellus sit ; So, Ilium ut 
vivat optant, instead of ut illc vivat optant ; or ilium vivere optant. Or. Giam. 
§ 150. Ohs. 4. 

Obs. 7. A few cases occur in which the accusative is put after a 
noun derived from a verb, or the verbal adjectives in -bundus ; as, Quid 
tibi hue receptio ad te est meum virum ? Wherefore do you receive my 
husband hither to you ? Plaut. Quid tibi hanc aditio est. Id. Vitabun- 
dus castra. Liv. 

Obs. 8. Many verbs considered transitive in Latin, are intransitive in 
English, and must have a preposition supplied in translating; as, Ut ca. 
verct me " that he should beware of me." On the other hand, ma- 
ny intransitive verbs in Latin, i.e., verbs which do not take an accusa- 



§ 117-18 SYNTAX. THE VOCATIVE. 226 

live after them are rendered into English by transitive verbs; as, For 
tuna favet for tibus, " fortune favors the brave." 

N. B. For the Accusative governed by Recordor, &c. see 
§ 108. K. XIV.— with another accusative, § 124. R. XXX.— 
governed by prepositions, § 136. R. XL VIII. L. LI. LIL — 
denoting time, § 131. R. XLL— place, H30, R. XXXVIL— 
measure or distance, § 132. R. XLII. 



$ 117. CONSTRUCTION OF THE VOCATIVE. 

The Vocative is used to designate the person or thing addressed, 
but forms no part of the proposition with which it stands ; and it is 
used either with, or without an interjection. 

Rule XXL The interjections O, heu and proh, 
are construed with the vocative ; as, 

O formose puer ! O fair boy ! 

Sometimes with the accusative ; as, Heu me miserum, u Ah wretch 
that I am !" and sometimes with the nominative ; as, O vir fortis at que 
amicus. 

Obs. 1. To these may be added other interjections of calling or ad- 
dressing ; as, ah, au, ehem, eheu, eho, eja, hem, heus, hut, io, ohe, and 
vah, which are often followed by the vocative : as, Heus Syre; Ohe 
libelle. 

Obs. 2. The vocative is sometimes omitted while a genitive depend- 
ing upon it remains j as, O miseree gentis, sc. homines. Lucan. 

Obs. 3. The interjection Hex and Vce, govern the dative; as, Hex 
mihi' } " Ah me !" V& vobis, " Woe to you!" 



§ 118. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ABLATIVE. 

The ablative is used in Latin generally to express that from which 
something is separated or taken ; or, as that by, or with which some- 
thing is done, or exists. It is governed by nouns, adjectives, verbs 
and prepositions, and also is used to express various relations of mea- 
sure, distance, time, and place, &c. 

THE ABLATIVE AFTER NOUNS 

Rule XXII. Opus and Usus signifying need, re- 
quire the ablative; as, 

Est opus pecunid, There is need of money. 

Nunc usus viribus Now there is need of strength. 



226 SYNTAX.— THE ABLATIVE. § 119 

EXPLANATION.— The ablative after these nouns is probably governed by a 
preposition snch as pro understood. In this sense they are used only with the 
verb sum, of which opusis sometimes the subject, and sometimes the predicate: 
Vsus, the subject only. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. Opus in the predicate, is commonly used as an indeclinable 
adjective, in which case it rarely has the ablative j as, Dux nobis 
opus est, " We need a general." Cic. So, Dices nummos mihi opus esse. 
Cic. Nobis exempla opus sunt. Cic. In these examples opus, as an 
indeclinable adjective, agrees with " dux" u nummos," " exempla, 11 
by Rule II. This construction is most common with neuter adjec- 
tives and pronouns, and is always used with those denoting quantity ; 
as, quod non opus est, asse carum est. Cato apud Sen. 

Obs. 2. Opus and usus are often joined with the perfect participle ; 
as, Opus maturato , u Need of haste ;" Opus consulto, u Need of de- 
liberation ;" Usus facto, " Need of action." The participle has some- 
times a substantive joined with it after opus ; as, Mihi opus fuit 
Hirtio convento, " It behoved me to meet with Hirtius. Cic 
Sometimes the supine is joined with it ; as, Ita dictu opus est. Ter 

Obs. 3. Opus is often followed by the infinitive, or by the subjunc- 
tive with ut ; as, Siquid forte, quod opus sit sciri. Cic. Nunc tibi 
opus est, cegram ut te adsimiles. Plaut. Sometimes it is absolutely 
without a case, or with a case understood ; as, Sic opus est ; Si opus 
est. 

Exc. Opus and usus, are sometimes followed by the genitive by 
Rule II.; as, Argenti opus fuit, ii there was need of money;" 
Sometimes by an accusative, in which case an infinitive is probably 
understood j as Puero opus est cibum ; Scil. habere. Plaut. 



§ 119. ABLATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 

[For the Ablative governed by adjectives of plenty or w r ant, see 
§107. Rule XL] 

Rule XXIII. These adjectives digitus, indignus, 
contentus, praditus, capitis, andfretus, also the par- 
ticiples natus, satus, ortus, editus, and the like, 
denoting origin, govern the ablative ; as, 

Dignus honor e, Worthy of honor. 

Contentus parvo, Content with little. 

Prceditus virtute, Endued with virtue. 

Captus oculis, Blind 

Fretus viribus, Trusting to his strength. 

Ortus regibus, Descended of kings. 

EXPLANATION. — The ablative after these adjectives and participles is go- 
verned by some preposition understood ; as, cum, de, e, ex, in, &c. Sometimes 
it is expressed; as. Ortus ex cancubina. Sallust. 



§ 120 



SYNTAX. THE ABLATIVE. 227 



Obs. 1. Instead of the ablative, these adjectives often take an in- 
finitive, or a subjunctive clause with qui or ut ; as, Dignus amari. 
Virg. Dignus qui imperet. Cic. Noji sum dignus, ut figam palum in 
parietem. Plaut. 

Exc. Dignus, indignus, and contentus, are sometimes followed by 
the genitive j as, Dignus avorum. Virg. For the ablative governed 
by adjectives of plenty or want, see § 107. Rule XI. 



§ 120. THE ABLATIVE WITH THE COMPARA- 
TIVE DEGREE. 

Rem. When two objects are compared by means of the compara- 
tive degree, a conjunction such as, quam, ac, atque, &c. signifying 
" than," is sometimes expressed and sometimes omitted. In the first 
the construction of the case falls under other rules , in the second it 
falls under the following, viz. 

Rule XXIV. The comparative degree without 
a conjunction governs the ablative ; as 

Dulcior melle, Sweeter than honey. 

Prcestantior auro, More precious than gold. 

Perennius cere, More durable than brass. 

EXPLANATION. — The ablative under this rule is supposed to be governed 
more properly by j>ra> understood, which is sometimes expressed ; as, Uniu 
pr<e ceteris for iior. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. Of these two modes of comparison, the ablative without a 
conjunction is commonly used when the object is compared with the 
subject of a proposition ; as, Quid magis est durum saxo, quid mollius 
undo. But when in such a comparison quam is used, the second sub- 
stantive will be in the same case with the first, because in the same 
construction ; as, Oratio quam habitus fuit miser abilior ; Cic. i. e. 
Oratio fuit miser abilior quam habitus (fuit.) 

Obs. 2. When the object is compared with the predicate of a pro- 
position the conjunction, quam is commonly used, and then there are 
two cases. 

1st. If the same thing is predicated of both substantives, they will 
be in the same case, because they will fall under the same construc- 
tion ; as, Ego homincm callidiorem vidi neminem quam Phormionem ; 
i. e. quam (vidi,) Phormionem. 

2d. If the same thing is not predicated of both substantives, the 
latter will commonly be in the nominative with sum, expressed or un- 
derstood ; as, Meliorem quam ego sum, suppono tibi. Plaut. 

Obs. 3. Quam. is frequently understood after plus, minus, and am- 
plius, and sometimes after major, minor, and some other compara- 
tives without a change of case ; as, Capta plus (quam) quinquemil- 



228 SYNTAX. THE ABLATIVE. § 121 

Ha hominum, " More than five thousand men were taken." Obsides 
ne minores (quam) octonum denum annorum. 

But quam. is always expressed before the dative and vocative. 

Note. — These words are also followed by the ablative without quam accord- 
ing to the rule. 

Obs. 4. When the second member of a comparison is an infinitive 
mood, or a part of a sentence, quam is always expressed ; as, Nihil 
turpius est quam mentiri. 

Obs. 5. The comparative is often followed by the following nouns, 
adjectives, and participles in the ablative ; viz. opinione, spe, expecta- 
tions, fide. — dicto, solito, — aequo, credibili, justo ; as, citius diet o turn- 
Ida, cequbra placat. Virg. These ablatives often supply the place of 
a clause ; as, gravius cequo, equivalent to gravius quam cequum est. 

These ablatives are sometimes omitted ; as, Liberius vivebat, sc. 
cequo, " he lived more freely than was proper j" i. e. " he lived too 
freely ," or " rather freely." 

Obs. 6. When one quality is compared with another, in the same 
subject, the adjectives expressing them are both put in the positive 
degree with magis quam, or in the comparative connected by quam ; as, 
ars magis magna quam difficilis. Triumphus clarior quam gratior, 
u a triumph more famous than acceptable." 

Obs. 7. The prepositions pro?, ante, prater, and supra, are some- 
times used with a comparative ; as, sceltre ante alios immanior 
omnes. Also a superlative ; as, Ante alios carissimus. Pro is used 
after quam, to express proportion j as, Pr ostium atrocius quam pro 
numtro pugnantium. 

Obs. 8. Magis and minus joined to the positive degree, are equiva- 
lent to the comparative ; as, O luce magis delect a. Magis and plus 
joined with a comparative, onty strengthen it j as, Nihil invenies 
magis hoc certius. 

Obs. 9. Inferior sometimes governs the dative ; as, vir nulla arte cui 
quam inferior; the ablative also is found, but it is usually followed by 
quam. 

Obs. 10. Alius is sometimes construed like comparatives and some- 
times, though rarely, is followed by the ablative j as, non putes alium 
sapiente bonoque beatum. 



§ 121. ABLATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 

Rule XXV. Verbs of plenty and scarceness, 
for the most part govern the ablative ; as, 

Abundat divitiis, He abounds in riches. 

Caret omni culpa, He has no fault. 

EXPLANATION.— The ablative after such verbs, may be governed by a pre- 
position understood, sometimes it is expressed ; as, vacat a culpa. Or it may 
be used to limit the verb, by showing in what respect its meaning is to be ta- 
ken; as, li he abounds m respect of riches,' 7 (see Rule XXXIV.) Instances 
of this construction, however, are so common as to warrant the rule here given. 



§ 122 SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AND GENITIVE. 229 

Obs. 1. Verbs of plenty are such as, Abundo, affluo, exubh'o, re 
dundo, suppcdito, scat^o, &c. of want, Carco, egZo, indigto, vaco % de- 
ficior, destituor, &c. 

Exc. 1. EiZco and indigSo, sometimes govern the genitive; as, Eget 
ceris, he needs money. Hor. Non tain artis indigent, quam laboris* 
Cic. So, also, some verbs denoting to fill, to abound, such as, abun- 
do, carco, saiuro, scatio. 

Rule XXVI. Utor, abutor, frucr, fungor, potior, 
vescor, govern the ablative ; as, 

Utitur fraude, He uses deceit. 

Abutitur libris, He abuses books. 

Obs. 2. To these add, gaudto, creor, nascor, fido, vivo, victito, con* 
sto, laboro, (" to be ill;") pascor, epulor, nitor, &c. 

Exc. 2 Potior often governs the genitive; as, Potiri urbis, To get 
possession of the city; Potiri rerum, (never rebus,) to possess the 
chief command. In such cases, the genitive may be governed by im- 
perio understood. 

Exc. 3. Potior, fungor, vescor, epulor and pascor, sometimes gov- 
ern the accusative; as, Potiri urbem. Cic. Officia fungi, &c. and al- 
so, in ancient writers utor. abutor, and fruor. Depasco and depascor 
have the accusative always. 

N. B. For the Ablative of the adjunct, see § 106. R. VII. 
— For the Ablative governed by adjectives of plenty, or 
want, § 107. Rule XL — By verbs of loading, binding, &c. 
§ 125. — By passive verbs, § 126. Rule V. — By a preposition, 
$ 136. R. XLIX. LI. LIL 

For the Ablative of Limitation, see § 128. — Of Cause, 
manner, Sac. § 129. — Of the place where, § 130. Exc. — From 
which, § 130. 3. — Of time when, § 131. R. XL. — How long, 
R. XLL— Of measure, $ 132. R. XLIL— Of excess, R. XLIU. 
— Of price, § 133. — In the case absolute, § 146. R. LX. 



§ 122. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE 
AND GENITIVE. 

Many transitive verbs, with the accusative of the direct object, govern 
also another word to which the action has an indirect or remote refer 
ence, in the genitive, dative, accusative, or ablative, as the nature of that 
reference may require. All verbs under these rules are transitive verbs 
in the active voice, or transitive deponents. 

Rule XXVII. Verbs of accusing, condemning, 
acquitting, and admonishing, govern the accusar 



230 SYNTAX.— ACCUSATIVE AND GENITIVE. §122 

tive of a person, with the genitive of a thing; 
as, 

Arguit mefurtl, He accuses me of theft 

Meipsum inertice condemno, I condemn myself of laziness. 

Ilium homicidii absolvunt, They acquit him of manslaughter. 

Monet me officii, He admonishes me of my duty. 

To this rule belong verbs of, 

Accusing; as, Accuso, ago, appello, arcesso, anquiro, arguo, coar- 
guo, capto, increpo, increpito, urgeo, incuso, insimulo, interrogo, pos* 
tulo, alligo, astringo, defero, compello. 

Condemning; as, Damno, condemno, i?ifamo, noto, convinco, pre- 
hendo, deprehendo, judico, plector. 

Acquitting ; as, Absolvo, HbZro, purgo, and perhaps solvo. 

Admonishing : as, Moneo, admoneo, commoneo, commonefacio . 

Obs. 1. With many of these verbs, instead of the genitive of the 
crime or punishment, the ablative is used with or without a preposi- 
tion ; as, Accusdre de negligentid. Cic. Liberdre culpa. Id. The 
ablatives crimine and nomine are often inserted before the genitive, 
which may be regarded as the full form of the construction ; as, Ar- 
cessere aliquem crimine ambitus. Liv. Sometimes the punishment 
is put in the accusative after ad or in ; as Damndre ad pcenam, in 
metallum, rarely in the dative ; as, Damnatus morti. Multo has al- 
ways the ablative ; as, multare poind, pecunid, exsiliis, &c. 

Obs. 2. Accuso, incuso, insimulo, together with verbs of ad- 
monishing, instead of the genitive, are followed by the accusative, 
especially of the neuter pronouns, hoc, id, illud, quod, &c. and their 
plurals ; as, Si id me non accusas ; Plaut. Eos hoc mono, Cic. rarely 
by the accusative of nouns ; as, Sic me insimuldre falsum f acinus. 
The accusative in this case may be considered as governed by the 
preposition secundum, or quod aitinet ad. 

Obs. 3. Many verbs signifying to accuse, and among them some 
of the verbs enumerated under this rule, do not govern the genitive 
of the crime, but, as active verbs, govern it in the accusative by Rule 
XX ; as, Arguo culpam. Ejus avaritiam perjidiamque accusdrat, 
When thus construed, the immediate object of condemnation is the 
crime ; in the other construction it is the person. 

Obs. 4. Verbs of admonishing instead of the genitive are some- 
times followed by an infinitive or clause ; as, Soror monet Succur- 
here Lauso Turnum. Virg. Monet ut suspiciones vitet. Cses. Mo- 
net rationem frumenti esse habendam. Hirt. 

Rule XXVIII. Verbs of valuing with the ac- 
cusative govern such genitives as, magni, parvi, 
nihili, &c. ; as, 

JEstimo te magni, I value you much. 

EXPLANATION.— These genitives are adjectives and properly agree with 
pretiiy momenti, or some such noun understood, which, with the adjective in 
the genitive, may come under Rule VII. thus, JEstimo tehominem magni pretii, 



1$ 123 SYNTAX — ACCUSATIVE AND DATIVE. 231 

" 1 esteem you a man of great worth." If this conjecture be right, it will account tor 
the ablative after the same verbs. See Obs. 6. 

Verbs of valuing are such as cestimo, existimo, duco, facio, habeo, 
vendo, puto, taxo, and sum, which has the genitive only. 

Among the genitives governed by such verbs may be reckoned, tanti, 
quanti,pluris, majoris, minoris, minimi, plurimi, maximi, nauci,pili, 
assis, teruncii, hujus, flocci. For the genitive of price see § 133, Exc. 

Obs. 5. JEqui and boni are put in the genitive after facio and con- 
sulo; as, JEqui bonique facio, "I take this in good part." 

Obs. 6. JEstimo sometimes governs the ablative; as, JEstimo te 
magno, parvo, &c. After habto puto, duco, the ablative with pro is 
common; as, Pro nih'do habto. So also nihil with cestimo and moror. 
Refert and interest, besides their own regimen, § 113, Exc. I, often 
take nihil or a neuter accusative; as, mea nihil refert. 



§123. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE AND 
DATIVE. 

Rule XXIX. Verbs of comparing, giving, de- 
claring, and taking away, govern the accusative 
and dative ; as, 

Comparo Virgilium Homero, I compare Virgil to Homer. 

Suum cuique tribuito, Give every man his own. 

Narrasfabiilam surdo. You tell a story to a deaf man. 

Eripuit me morti, He rescued me from death. 

EXPLANATION.— This is a rule of very extensive application. When, to- 
gether with the thing done, (expressed by the active verb and its accusative,) 
we express also the remote object to which it is done, that object will be put in 
the dative ; thus, in the above examples, the verb and the accusative following 
it, express the whole of that which is represented as done to, or with reference 
to, the object expressed in the dative; i. e. Comparo Virgilium, expresses all 
here said to be done, (Homero,) to Homer, — I compare Virgil to him. Narras 
fabulam, expresses all here said to be done, (surdo,) to the deaf man, — you 
tell a story to him; and so Eripuit me, together, express what is here done, 
(morti) to death,— he rescued me from it ; and so of other examples. See this 
more fully illustrated, Gr. Gram. § 152. Obs. 3. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. Verbs of comparing and taking away, and some others, 
instead of the dative often take a preposition and its case ; as, Com- 
parcire unam rem cum alia, — ad aliam, — res inter se. Eripuit me morti, 
— morte, — a, or ex morte, &c. 

Obs. 2. Instead of the accusative, these verbs have frequently an 
infinitive mood or a part of a sentence ; as, Da mihi failure, Reddes 
mihidulce loqui, &c. Hor. P erf acile factu esse illisprobat ; Itemque 
Dumnorigi, ut idem conaretur persuadet. Cses. This construction is 
especially common with such verbs as, Aio, dico, inquam, persuadeo. 



232 SYNTAX. TWO ACCUSATIVES. § 124 

respondeo, &c. when the thing said, replied, &c. though a sentence 
or a paragraph, is to be regarded as the accusative, and the person or 
persons to whom said is put in the dative. 

Obs. 3. Several verbs governing the accusative and dative are of- 
ten construed differently ; as, Circumdare mcenia oppido, or oppidum 
mcenibus, " to surround a city with walls. " Inter cludtre commedtum 
alicui, or aliquem comeatu, " to intercept one's provisions." InduZre, 
exuere vestem sibi, or, se vesti. So the following, Universos frumento 
donavit. Nep. and Prcedam militibus donat. Cses. Asperger e sale 
carries, or aspergere salem cornlbus. Plin. 

Obs. 4. The accusative is sometimes understood j as, Nubere alicui 
(sc. se.) Cedere alicui (sc. locum,) detrahere alicui, (sc. laudem,) &c. 

Obs. 5. Verbs signifying motion or tendency to a thing, instead of 
the dative, have an accusative after them with the preposition ad j 
as, Ad prcetorem hominem traxit. 



§ 124. VERBS GOVERNING TWO ACCUSATIVES. 

Rule XXX. Verbs of asking, and teaching, go- 
vern two accusatives, the one of a person, and 
the other of a thing ; as, 

Posclmus te pacem, We beg peace of thee. 

Docuit me grammaticam, He taught me grammar. 

EXPLANATION.— The first accusative under this rule belongs to Rule XX. 
the second may be governed by quod attinet ad, or secundum understood, mean- 
ing as to, in respect of. Or the reason of this rule may be, that most of the 
verbs under it, admit either of the nouns after them, as their immediate object. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. Verbs of asking, which govern two accusatives, are Rogo, 
oro, exoro, obsecro, precor, posco, reposco, flaglto, &c. Of teaching, 
Doceo, edoceo, dedoceo, erudio. To these may be added, celo, to con- 
ceal; as, Antigbnus iter omnes eel at. Nep. 

Obs. 2. Verbs of asking, instead of the accusative of the person, 
often take the ablative with ab or ex; as, Veniam or emus ab ipso. 
So also, instead of the accusative of the thing, many verbs both of 
asking and teaching sometimes take the ablative with de; as, De itu 
ntre hostium senaium edocet. Sail. Sic ego te eisdem de rebus interrogem. 

Obs. 3. Some verbs of asking and teaching, are never followed by 
two accusatives, but by the ablative of the person, with a preposi- 
tion; such as, exigo, peto, queer o, scitor, sciscitor, and the following 
verbs of teaching, viz: imbuo, instituo, instruo, and some others, are 
followed by the ablative of the thing, sometimes with, and sometimes 
without a preposition; and sometimes they are otherwise construed. 

Obs. 4. Many other active verbs, frequently besides the accusative 
of a person, take also an accusative of nihil, or of the neuter pro- 



§ 125-6 SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AND ABLATIVE. 233 

nouns, hoc, id, quid, or of adjectives of quantity; as, Fabius ea me 
monuit. Cic. Nee te id consulo. Id. These verbs, however, in their 
signification, generally resemble verbs under this rule; or the accu- 
sative of the thing may be governed by a preposition understood 



§ 125. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE 
AND ABLATIVE. 

Rule XXXI. Verbs of loading, binding, cloth- 
ing, depriving, and their contraries, govern the 
accusative and ablative ; as, 

Onerat naves auro, He loads the ships with gold. 

EXPLANATION.— The accusative under this rule belongs to Rule XX. The 

ablative may be governed by a preposition understood. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. Verbs of loading are Onlro, cumulo, premo, opprimo, 06- 
ruo, impleo, explto, compleo. — Of unloading, levo, exonero, &c. — Of 
binding, astringo, ligo, alligo, devincio, impedio, irretio, illaqut'o, &c. 
Of loosing, solvo, exsolvo, libero, laxo, expedio, &c. — Of depriving, 
privo, nudo, orbo, spolio, fraudo, emungo. — Of clothing, vestlo 9 amiciOj 
induo, cingo, tego, velo, corono. — Of unclothing, exuo, discingo, Sec. 

To these maybe added many other verbs, such as, muto, dono, mu- 
nero, remunZro, communico, pasco, beo, impertior, dignor, afficio, pro* 
sequor, assequor, spargo, oblecto, &c. with which, however, in many 
cases, the ablative may come under Rule XXXIV. and XXXV. 

Obs. 2. These verbs are sometimes followed by the ablative with a 
preposition expressed; as. Solvere aliquem ex cat enis. Cic. The ab- 
lative is sometimes understood; as, complet naves, sc.viris. Virg. 

Obs. 3. Several of these verbs denoting to fill, likewise govern 
the genitive: as, Adolescentem suce temeritatis implet, u He fills the 
youth with his own rashness." Some of them also vary their con- 
struction; as, induit or exuit se vestibus, or vestes sibi. Jtbdicdre ma» 
gistratum. Sail. Abdicare se magistrate. Cic. See § 123. Obs, 3. 



$ 126. CONSTRUCTION WITH PASSIVE VERBS. 
Rule XXXII. Verbs that govern two cases in 
the active voice, govern the latter of these in the 
passive; as, 

Accusor furti, I am accused of theft. 

Virgilius comparatur Homer o , Virgil is compared to Homer. 

Doceor grammaticam, I am taught grammar. 

Navis oneratur auro, The ship is loaded with gold 

20* 



234 SYNTAX. PASSIVE VERBS. § 126 

This rule may be subdivided into the five following, which will be 
much more convenient in practice, than the general Rule. 

Rule I. Verbs of accusing, condemning, &c. in the passive 
voice,, govern the Genitive. 

Rule II. Verbs of valuing in the passive, govern such 
genitives as, magni, parvi, nihili, &c. 

Rule III. Verbs of comparing, giving, declaring and tak~ 
ing away, &c. in the passive, govern the dative. 

Rule IV. Verbs of asking, and teaching, &c. in the pas- 
sive, govern the accusative. 

Rule V. Verbs of loading, binding, clothing, depriving, 
&c. in the passive, govern the ablative. 

EXPLANATION.— This rule applies to the passives of all verbs under Rules 
XXVII. to XXXI. inclusive. In all of these the ''latter case' 7 is that which 
with the active voice expresses the remote, and never the immediate object of 
the verb. In all constructions under this rule it must be noticed that that which 
was, or would be the accusative after the verb in the active voice, must be its 
nominative in the passive, otherwise the construction does not belong to this 
rule. Thus, Active, Narras fabulam surdo. Passive, Narratur fabula surdo. 
Here "fabulam," the direct object of narras, is changed into the nominative 
or subject of narratur ; and surdo remains the same in both sentences. The 
" latter case,' 7 in other words, the remote object of the active voice is never, in 
Latin, converted into the subject of the passive except in a few instances which 
are manifest Graecisms. See Greek Gram. § 154. Obs. 2. In English, however, 
there are some expressions in which this is allowed. See Eng. Gram. § 49. 
06s. and Crombie's Etymology, p. 270. 

Hence, where, in some cases the Greek and English languages admit of two 
forms of expression, the Latin idiom admits of only one, e. g. " This was told 
to me," or " I was told this," is rendered into Latin by the first form; thus, 
Hoc mihi dictum est. But we cannot say according to the second form, Hoc die 
tus sum. 

Obs. 1. When the active voice is followed by three cases, § 114. 
Obs. 3. the passive has the two last ; as, Hoc missum est mihi mun£- 
ri, " This was sent as a present to me." Here muneri is the dative 
of the end. R. XIX. 

Rule XXXIII. Passive verbs frequently govern 
the dative of the doer; as, 

Vix audior ulli, I am scarcely heard by any one. 

Scriberis Vario, You shall he described by Varius. 

Nulla audita mihi sororum. None of your sisters have been 

heard of by me. 

EXPLANATION.— This construction is used chiefly by the poets, and by 
them as a substitute for another still more common; namely, that the volun- 
tary agent after the passive voice, is put in the ablative with a or ah and so 
comes under Rule XLIX. as, (in the active voice,) Clodius me diligit, "Clodius 



§ 127-8 SYNTAX. CIRCUMSTANCES. LIMITATION. 235 

loves me." (in the passive,) A Clodio diligor, " I am loved by Clodius. The 
preposition is sometimes omitted; as, colitur linigera turba. 

Obs. 2. After passive verbs the principal agent or actot , is usually- 
expressed in the ablative with the preposition a, or ab ; as, Laudatur 
ab his, culpaiur ab i/Iis, " He is praised by these, he is blamed by 
those." But, 

The secondary agent, means, or instrument after transitive verbs in the 
active or passive voice or after intransitive verbs, is put in the accusative 
with per; as, Per Thrasybulum Lyci filium, ab excrcitu recipitur. Nep. ; 
but oftener in the ablative by Rule XXXV. 

Obs. 3. The passive participle in -dus, has the agent or doer almost 
always in the dative; and besides, when it agrees with the subject of a 
sentence, conveys the idea of obligation or necessity; as, Semel omnibus 
calcanda est via leti, u The way of death (is to be, i. e.) must once 
be trod by all. Hor. Adhibenda est nobis diligentia, u Diligence must 
be used by us," i. e. we must use diligence. Cic. Ccssari omnia uno 
temj ore erant agenda, u All things had to be done by Ccesar at one 
time.'' § 49. 6. 

Obs. 4. The accusative of place or time after intransitives in the 
passive voice, is not governed by the verb, but by a preposition un- 
derstood, or comes under other rules ; as, itur Athenas, Rule XXXVII. 
pugndtum est biduum. R. XLI. dormUur totam noctem. R. XLI. We find, 
however, Tot a mihi dor mitur hy ems: Nodes vigilantur amurce ; Oce- 
anus aditur. Tac. 



§ 127. CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES. 

Words and phrases are often thrown in between the parts of a 
sentence in an adverbial manner, to express some circumstance 
connected with the idea of the simple sentence, and which do not depend 
for their case on any word in the sentence to which they belong, but 
on a preposition or adverb or other word understood, or are by com- 
mon usage put in a particular case in certain circumstances without 
government or dependence on any words either expressed or under- 
stood. 

To this may be referred circumstances. 1. Of limitation. — 2. Of 
cause, manner, &c. — 3. Of place — 4. Of time. — 5. Of measure.— -6. 
Of price; as follows. 



§ 128. CIRCUMSTANCES OF LIMITATION. 

A particular qualification of a general expression, made in English 
by the phrase " in respect of," " with regard to/' is expressed in 
Latin by the ablative or more briefly, as follows : 



236 SYNTAX.— -OF CIRCUMSTANCES. CAUSE, &C. § 129 

Rule XXXIV. Respect wherein, and the part 
affected are expressed in the ablative ; as, 

Pietatefilius, In affection a son. 

Jure peritus, Skilled in law. 

Pedibus ceger, Lame in his feet. 

EXPLANATION. — The ablative under this rule is used to limit the significa- 
tion of nouns, adjectives, and verbs, and may be variously rendered to express 
the nature of the limitation intended; as, in, in respect of, with respect to, with 
regard to, ,} &c. 

Obs. 1. The part affected, after adjectives and verbs, belongs to this 
rule, containing, as it does, a similar limitation of a general expression, 
as in the last of the above examples. The following are of a similar 
character. Anxius animo. Tac. Crine ruber; ore niger; Mart. Con- 
tremisco totd mente et omnibus artubus. Cic. Animoque et corpore tor- 
pet. Hor. 

Exc. The part affected, in imitation of a Greek construction, is 
sometimes expressed in the accusative ; as, Nudus membra, u Bare 
as to his limbs. " Virg. So, Sibila colla tumentem. Id. Expleri men- 
tern nequit. Id. Fr actus membra. Hor. Tempora einctus. Virg. This 
construction is in imitation of the Greek, (See Gr. Gr. § 157. Obs. I.) 
The accusative may be governed by a preposition understood. 

Note. — The accusative in such phrases has usually been accounted for by 
supplying quoad, or quod ad, signifying "as to," (i with regard to." Crombie 
inhis Gymnasium, has clearly shewn that neither of these solutions are cor- 
rect. That quoad never governs an accusative, nor has the meaning here as- 
signed to it; that quod ad is not justified by any good authority ; but that the 
proper supplement is, quod attinet ad, u as pertains to;" quod spectat ad, u as 
regards." See Gymnasium, p. 261. et seq. 4th Ed. 

Obs. 2. To this rule may be referred the matter of which any thing 
is made ; as, JEre cavo clypeus, a shield of hollow brass. But here 
the preposition is commonly expressed j as, Templum de marmore. 
In imitation of the Greeks, the matter is sometimes put in the geni- 
tive ) as crateres argenti, '" goblets of silver." Gr. Gr. § 156. Obs. 3. 



§ 129. THE ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, MANNEE, &c. 

Rule XXXV. The cause, manner, means, and 
instrument, are put in the ablative ; as, 

Palleo metu } I am pale for fear. 

Fecit suomore, He did it after his own way. 

Auro ostroque decori, Decked with gold and purple. 

Scribo calamo, I write with a pen. 

EXPLANATION. — The ablative in this rule is probably governed by a prepo- 
sition understood, — as there are numerous instances in which the preposition 
is expressed. The cause will be known by putting the question, "Why?" or 
11 wherefore ?" The manner, by u How ?" The mean" by "By what means?" 
The instrument, by "Wherewith?" 



§ 130 SYNTAX.— OF CIRCUMSTANCES. PLACE. 237 

06s. 1. The cause sometimes takes the prepositions per, propter, 
ob, with the accusative ; or de, e, ex, prce, with the ablative; as, 
Depulsus per invidiam ; Fessus de via. 

Obs. 2. The mariner is sometimes expressed by a, ab, cum, de, ex, 
per ; as, De more suo. The means frequently by per, and cum; as, 
cum meis copiis omnibus vexavi Amanienses. See § 126. Obs. 2. 

Obs. 3. The instrument properly so called seldom admits a prepo- 
sition, though among the poets, a, ah, de, sub, are sometimes used ; 
as, Pectora trajectus ab ense ; Exercere solum sub vomtre. 



$ 130. CIRCUMSTANCES OF PLACE. 

The circumstances of place may be reduced to four particulars. 
1. The place where, or in which. — 2. The place whither or to which. 
^-3. The place whence, or from which.— 4. The place by, or through 
which. 

N. B. The following rules respecting place refer chiefly to the 
names of towns. Sometimes, though very seldom, the names of coun- 
tries, provinces, islands, &c. are construed in the same way. With 
these, however, the preposition is commonly added. 

1. The Place where, or in which. 
Rule XXXVI. The name of a town denoting 
the place where, or in which, is put in the genitive; 
as, 

Vixit Romce, He lived at Rome. 

Mortuus est Mileti, He died at Miletus. 

Exc. But if the name of the town where or in 
which, be of the third declension, or plural num- 
ber, it is expressed in the ablative ; as, 

Habitat Carthagine, He dwells at Carthage. 

Studuit Athenis, He studied at Athens. 

Obs. 1. When the name of a town is joined with an adjective, or com- 
mon noun in apposition, a preposition is commonly added ; as, Romce 
in celebri urbe ; or in Romce celebri urbe ; or in Roma celebriurbe; 
or sometimes, Romce celebri urbe. 

Note. — In this construction the name of a town in the third declension fre- 
quently has the ablative singular in % ; as, Habitat Carthagini. Fuere Sicyoni 
jamdiu Dionysia. Plaut. Tiburi genitus. Suet. 

Obs. 2. The name of the town where, or in which, is sometimes, 
though rarely put in the ablative when it is of the first or second de- 
clension ; as, Tyro rexdecedit; for Tyri, u The king dies at Tyre ;" 
Just. Hujus exemplar Roma nullum habemus. Vitruv. 

Obs. 3. The preposition in is sometimes expressed before the ab- 
lative ; as, In Philippis quidam nunciavit. Suet. At, or near a 



238 SYNTAX. OF CIRCUMSTANCES. PLACE. § 130 

place is expressed by ad, or apud with the accusative ; as, Ad , or apud 
Trojam, " at or near Troy." 

2. The Place whither, or to which. 

Rule XXXVII. The name of a town denoting 
the place whither, or to which, is put in the accu- 
sative ; as, 

Venit Romam, He came to Rome. 

Profectus est Athenas, He went to Athens. 

Obs. 4. Among the Poets, the town to which is sometimes put in the 
dative j as, Carthagini nuncios mittam. Hor. 

Obs. 5> After verbs of telling, and giving, when motion to is im- 
plied, the name of a town is sometimes put in the accusative ; as, 
Romam eratnunciatum, u The report was carried to Rome." Messanam 
literas dedit. 

3. The place whence, or from which. 

Rule XXXVIII. The name of a town whence 
or from ivhich ; or by or through which, is put in 
the Ablative; as, 

Discessit Corintho, He departed from Corinth, 

Laodiced iter fecit, He went through Laodicea. 

Obs. 6. The place by or through which, however, is commonly 
put in the accusative with per j as, Per Thebas iter fecit. Nep. 

4. Domus and Rus. 
Rule XXXIX. Domus and rus are construed in 

the same way as names of towns ; as, 

Manet domi, He stays at home. 

Domum revertltur, He returns home. 

Domo arcessltus sum, I am called from home. 
So also. 

Vivit rure or ruri, He lives in the country. 

Abiit rus, He is gone to the country. 

Rediit rure, He is returned from the country. 

Obs. 7. Hwni, militice, and belli, are likewise construed in the 
genitive like names of towns ; as, Jacet humi, " he lies on the 
ground f Domi et militice, (or belli,) " At home or abroad." 

Obs. 8. When domus is joined with an adjective the preposition is 
commonly used ; as, In domo paternd. So, ad domum patcrnam. Ex 
domo paternd, — Except with mens, tuus, suus, noster, vester, regius, 
and alienus; then it follows the rule. When domus has another sub- 
stantive in the genitive after it, it may be with or without a preposi- 
tion ; as Deprehensus est domi, domo, or in domo Ccesdris. 



§131 



SYNTAX. OF CIRCUMSTANCES. TIME. 239 



Obs. 9. Rus and riire in the singular joined with an adjective are 
used with, or without a preposition. But rura in the plural, is never 
without it. 

Obs. 10. The names of countries, provinces, and all other places 
except towns, are commonly construed with a preposition ; as, Na- 
tus in Italia; Abiit in Italiam; Rediit ex Italia; Transit per Italiam i 
&c. A few cases occur, however, in which names of countries, pro- 
vinces, &c. are construed like the names of towns without a prepo- 
sition ; as, Pojnpeius Cypri visits est, &c. Caes. 

Peto, " I seek,'-' or " go to," always governs the accusative as an 
active verb without a preposition; as, Petivit Egyptum, " he went 
to Egypt." 



§ 13L CIRCUMSTANCES OF TIME. 

Rule XL. Time when, is put in the ablative j 

as, 

Venit hord tertia, He came at three o'clock. 

Rule XLI. Time how long, is put in the accu- 
sative or ablative ; as, 

Mansit paucos dies. He staid a few days. 

Sex mens i bus abfuit, He was absent six months. 

EXPLANATION. — A precise period or point of time, is usually put in the ab- 
lative, — continuance of time, not marked with precision, for the most part in 
the accusative. 

Note. — It must be observed here, that the point of time under this rule, must 
coin; ide with the time of the verb with which it is connected, otherwise the 
rule does not hold good. — Thus, ' k He invited me to dine with him next day, ,; 
is properly rendered under this rule. Fccum postero die ut pranderem invita- 
vit; because postero die and pranderem are cotemporary. But if we change 
the verb pranderem for a noun, postero die will not do in the ablative, but 
must be changed thus; ad prandinm me invitavit in posterum diem. Postero 
die in this sentence, would mean that the invitation was given next day, and 
would be rendered in English, ll Next day he invited me to dinner." 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. All the circumstances of time are often expressed with a 
preposition; such as, in, de, ad, ante, circa, per, &c. Sometimes ad 
or circa, is understood before hoc, illud, id, isthuc, with cetatis, tern- 
poris, horce, &c. following in the genitive; as, id temporis, (sc. ad) 
for co tempore, fee. 

Obs. 2. Precise time, before or after another fixed time, is express- 
el by ante, or post, regarded as adverbs, either with the accusative or 
ablative; aliquot ante annos. Paucis ante diebus. Paucos post dies, 
&c. 

Sometimes quam with a verb, are added to ante or post-, as, Paucis 
■ post diebus quam Luca discessZrat. A few days after he had depart- 
ed from Luca Sometimes post is omitted before quam; as, die vu 
gesima quam creatus trat. 



240 SYNTAX. OF CIRCUMSTANCES. MEASURE. § 132 

Obs. 3. Instead of postquam, we sometimes find ex quo, or quum, 
or a relative agreeing with the preceding ablative; as, Octo diebus 
quibus has littras dabam. Eight days after I gave these letters. 

Obs. 4. The adverb abhinc, is used to express past time, joined 
with the accusative or ablative, without a preposition; as. Factum 
est abhinc biennio, or biennium. It was done two years ago. 



$ 132. CIRCUMSTANCES OF MEASURE. 

Rule XLII. Measure or distance is put in the 
accusative, and sometimes in the ablative ; as, 

Murus est decern pedes altus, The wall is ten feet high. 

Urbs distat triginta millia or iri- ) The dty isdislant thirt miles _ 

ginta millibus passuum, y * 

Iter or itinSre unius diei, One day's journey. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. I. The accusative or ablative of measure is put after such 
adjectives, and verbs o1 dimension ; as, Longus, lalus, crassus, pro* 
fundus, altus; Patet, porrigitur, eminet, he. The names of mea- 
sure are, pes, cubitus, ulnus, digitus, palmus, wAlle passuum, a 
mile, &c. 

Obs. 2. The accusative or ablative of distance is used only after 
verbs which express motion or distance ; as, eo, curro, duco } g6- 
sum, disto, &c. The accusative under this rule maybe governed by 
ad, or per understood, and the ablative by a, or ab. 

Obs. 3. When the measure of more things than one is expressed, 
the distributive numeral is commonly used ; as, Muri sunt denos 
pedes alt i, " The walls are each ten feet high." Sometimes denum 
pedum, for denorumis used in the genitive, governed by ad mensuram, 
understood. But the genitive is used to express the measure of 
things in the plural only. 

066. 4. The distance of the place where any thing is said to be 
done, is usually expressed in the ablative or in the accusative with a 
preposition ; as, Sex millibus passuum ab urbe consedit j or ad sex 
millia passuum. Cses. 

Obs. 5. Sometimes the place from which distance is estimated is not 
expressed, though the preposition governing it is, and may be render- 
ed off, distant, &c, as Ab sex millibus passuum abfuit; He was six 
miles off, or distant. (Scil. Roma, from Rome.) 

Rule XLIII. The measure of excess or defi- 
ciency is put in the ablative ; as, 

Sesquipede longior, Taller by a foot and a half. 

Novem pedibus minor, Less by nine feet. 

Quant o doc tior , tanto submissior , The more learned, the more humble. 
Obs. 6. To this rule are to be referred the ablatives tanto, quanto f 
quo, eo, hoc x aliquanto, multo, paulo, nihilo, &c, frequently joined 
to comparatives, and sometimes with superlatives. 



§ 133-4 SYNTAX. OF ADVERBS. 241 

$ 133. CIRCUMSTANCES OF PRICE. 

Rule XLIV. The price of a thing is put in the 
ablative ; as, 

Constitit talento, It cost a talent. 

Vendidit hie auro patriam. This man sold his country for gold. 

Exc. But tantij quanti, pluris, minoris, are used in the 

genitive ; as, 

Quanti constitit ? How much cost it ? 

Non, vendo pluris quarn cceteri, I do not sell for more than others. 

Obs. 1. When joined with a noun, tanti, quanti, &c. are put in 
the ablative ; as, Quam tanto pretio mercaius est. Tanto quanto, 
and plure are sometimes though rarely found without a noun ; as, 
plure venit, " it is sold for more." 

Obs. 2. The ablative of price is often an adjective without a noun; 
as, magno, permagno, parvo, paululo, tantiilo, minimo, plurimo, 
vili, nimio. These refer, however, to some such noun as pretio, 
cere, &c. understood. Valeo is found with an accusative. 



§ 134. CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 

Rule XLV. Adverbs are joined to verbs, adjec- 
tives, and other adverbs, to modify and limit their 
signification; as, 

Bene scribit, He writes well. 

Fortlter pugnans, Fighting bravely. 

JEgregiefidelis, Remarkably faithful. 

Satis bene. Well enough. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. Adverbs are sometimes joined with nouns, as, Homerus plane 
orator. Homer evidently an orator. 

Obs. 2. The adverb is usually placed near the word modified or 
limited by it. 

Negatives. 

Obs. 3. Two negatives in Latin, as well as in English, destroy each 
other, or are equivalent to an affirmative,- as, Nee non senserunt, 
" nor did they not perceive;" i. e. ei senserunt, " and they did per- 
ceive." So, Non potcram non exanimari metu. Cic. Non sum nesci- 
us. i. e. scio ] haud nihil est, " it is not nothing/ 7 i- e. "it is some- 
thing;" nonnulli, "not none," i. e. " some;" nonnunquam, "not 
never," i. e. "sometimes;" non nemo, "not nobody," i. e. "some- 
body," &c. 

Obs. 4. Exc. In imitation of the Greeks, however, two negatives 
in Latin, as well as in English, sometimes make a stronger nega- 

21 



242 SYNTAX, OF ADVERBS. § 135 

live; as, Neque ille haud objiciet mihi, " He will not by any means 
object to me;" Jura te non nociturum homini nemlni, &c. Neque, and 
nee, and sometimes non, are especially thus used after a negative; 
as, Non me carminibus vincet, nee Orpheus, nee Sinus. 

Obs. 5. Non is sometimes omitted after non modo, or non solum, 
when followed in a subsequent clause by ne quidem; as, Mihi non 
modo irasci, (i. e. non irasci,) sed ne dolere quidem impune licet. 
Sometimes, but rarely, it is omitted after sed, or verum, with etiam; 
as, Non modo eafutura timet, (i. e. non timet,) verum etiam fert susti- 
net que prcesentia. For ne, and ut, with timeo, &c. see§ 140. Obs. 6. 

Obs. 6. Certain adverbs are joined to adjectives in all the degrees 
of comparison, for the purpose of imparting greater force to their 
signification,- as, 

1st. To the positive are joined such adverbs as, apprime, admodum, 
vehementer, maxime, perquam,valde, oppidb, and per, in composition; 
as, gratum admodum, very agreeable; pcrquam puerile, very childish; 
&c. In like manner, Parum, multum, nimium, tantum, quantum, ali- 
quuntum; as, parum firmus; multum bonus, 
2d. To the comparative are joined, Paulo, nimio, aliquanto, eo, quo, 
hoc, impendio, nihil o; as, Eo gravior est dolor quo culpa major. — Cic. 
See § 132. Obs. 6. Sometimes, also, parum, multum, &c. as with the 
positive. 

3d. To the superlative are joined Facile, meaning " certainly," 
" undoubtedly;" longe, quam, also tanto, quanto, multo, &c. as, Fa- 
cile dociissimus, certainly the most learned; longe bellicosissima, (sc. 
gens,) by far the most warlike; quam maximas potest copias armat, 
he arms as great forces as possible. 

4th. Quam, (and also ut,) is also used as an intensive word with the 
positive, but in a sense somewhat different, resembling an exclama- 
tion; as, Quam difficile est ! how difficult it is! quam, or ut crudelis! 
how cruel! Flens quam fa miliar iter, weeping how affectionately, 
i. e. very affectionately; quam severe, how severely, i. e. very severely. 



§ 135. CASES GOVERNED BY ADVERBS. 

Rule XL VI. Some adverbs of time, place, and 
quantity, govern the genitive ; as, 

Pridie ejus diei, The day before that day. 

Ubique gentium, Every where. 

Satis est verborum, There is enough of words. 

1. Adverbs of time governing the genitive are, Inter ea, postea, inde, 
tunc; as, Inter ea loci, in the mean time; postea loci, afterwards; inde 
loci, then; tunc tempcris, at that time. 

2. Of place, Ubi, and quo, with their compounds, ubique, ubicunque, 
ubivis, ubiubi, quovis, he. Also, eo, hxic, huccine, unde, usqua?n } 
nusquam, longe, ibidem, &c. ; also, usquam, nusquam, unde ter- 
rdrum, or gentium; longe gentium; ibidem loci, eo audacice, — vecor- 
dice — miseridrum, &c. to that pitch of boldness — madness — misery, &c. 



§ 13b SYNTAX. PREPOSITIONS. 243 

3. Of quantity, Abunde, affatim, largiter, nimis, satis, ] arum, mu 
nime; as, Abunde gloria ; affatim divitidrum ; largiter auri ; satis elo* 
qu entice ; sapientice parum est illi, or habet, He has enough of glory, 
riches, &c. Minime gentium, by no means. 

Obs. 1. Ergo, (for the sake of,) instar and partim, also govern the 
genitive,- as. Donari virtutis ergo. 

Obs. 2. Pridie and Postridie, govern the genitive or accusative; as, 
Pridie Kalendas, sup. ante; Postridie Kalendas, sup. post. 

Obs. 3. En and Ecce govern the nominative or accusative; as, En 
causa; Ecce homo or hominem, sometimes a dative is added; as, Ecce 
duas aras tibi. Virg. In such constructions, a verb may be under- 
stood. The dative may be referred to, § 109. 3. 

Obs. 4. Certain prepositions used adverbially by the poets, are 
followed by the dative; as, Mihi clam est, it is unknown to me. Con- 
tra nobis. 

Rule XL VII. Some derivative adverbs govern 
the case of their primitives ; as, 

Omnium optime loquitur, He speaks the best of all. 

Convenienter naturce, Agreeably to nature. 

Venit obviam ei, He came to meet him. 

Proxime castris or castra, Next the camp. 

EXPLANATION. — In the first example, optime is derived from optimus t 
which governs the genitive by Eule X. § 107. Convenienter and obviam, are de- 
rived from conveniens and obvius, which govern the dative by Rule XVI. § 111. 
And proxime is derived from proximusj which governs the dative or accusative 
bv Kule XVI. Obs 5. $ 111. 



§ 136. CASES GOVERNED BY PREPOSITIONS. 

Rule XLVIIL Twenty-eight prepositions, ad, 
apud, ante, &c. govern the accusative ; as, 

Ad patrem, To the father. 

Rule XLIX. Fifteen prepositions, a, ab, abs, 
&c. govern the ablative ; as, 

A patre, From the father. 

OBSERVATIONS, 

Obs. 1. Clam, one of these fifteen, is sometimes followed by the 
accusative ; as, clam vos, without your knowledge. When followed 
by a genitive or dative ; as, Clam patris. Ter. Mihi clam est. Plaut. 
A substantive may be understood, or they may be regarded as adverbs 

Obs. 2. Tenus after a plural noun, commonly has it in the genitive , 
as crurum tenus. Virg. 



244 SYNTAX.— -PREPOSITIONS. § 136 

Rule L. The prepositions in, sub, super, and 
subter, denoting motion to, or tendency towards, 
govern the accusative ; as, 

Venit in Urbem, He came into the city. 

Amor in te, Love towards thee. 

Sub jugum 7nissus est, He was sent under the yoke. 

Incidit super agmina, It fell upon the troops. 

Rule LI. The prepositions in and sub denoting 
situation, govern the ablative ; super and subter ei- 
ther the accusative or ablative ; as, 

Jacet in terra. He lies upon the ground. 

Media in urbe, In the middle of the city. 

In poetis, Among the poets, 

Sub mamibus, Under the walls. 

Obs. 3. To both of these rules there are some exceptions. In» 
stances occur in which in and sub denoting motion to, or tendency to* 
wards, instead of the accusative govern the ablative ; as In conspectu 
meo audet venire ; sub jugo dictator host em misit. Others are found in 
which they govern the accusative when they denote situation ; as ? 
Mihi in mentemfuit. Hostes sub montemconsedisse, &e. 

Obs. 4. The preposition in with the accusative usually signifies in* 
to, towards, until, for, against ; with the ablative in, upon, among. 
With both cases, however, considerable variety of translation is ne- 
cessary to convey correctly the idea of the original. The following 
are instances, " In the case of, 7 ' Talis in hoste fuit Priamo. Virg. 
u On account of," In quo facto domum revocatus • — In sex mensibus, 
u Within six months ;" In dies, u from day to day." So, in horas, 
"' from hour to hour;" in capita, u per head ;" in pueritia, li during 
boyhood ;" in hoc tempore, li at this time," &c. 

Obs. 5. The preposition is frequently understood before its case j 
as, Devenere locos. Virg. Homo id cetatis. Cic. Propior montem. 
Sail. In which ad is understood. So, Nunc id prodeo, scrob; — Ter. 
Maria aspZra juro, sc. per. Se loco mover e, sc. e, or de ; Quid ill o fa- 
cias? sc. in or de, ii what can you do in his case?" Ut patrid expelle* 
retur, sc. ex. Nep. 

Obs. 6. Sometimes, but much more rarely, the case is omitted 
after the preposition ; as, circum Concordice, sc. cedem. Sail. Multis 
post annis, i. e. post id tempus. 

Rule LIL A preposition in composition often 
governs its own case ; as, 

Adeamus urbem, Let us go to the city. 

Exeamus urbe, Let us go out of the city. 

EXPLANATION. — By "its own case 77 is meant the case it governs when not 
m composition. This rule takes place only when the preposition may be sepa- 
rated from the verb, and placed before the case, without altering the sense. 
Thus; Adeamus urbem, and Eamus ad urbem, express the same thing. 



§ 137 SYNTAX OF THi: VEBB. TENSES. 245 

Obs. 7. The preposition is often repeated after the compound word; 
the case is then governed by the preposition repealed ; as, Exhee 
finibus. Cses. Nunquam ace : do ad tc, quin abs te abeam doctior. Ter. 

Note. — Some verbs never have the preposition repeated after them; such as, 
\ffaris, alloquor, allatro, alluo, accolo; ci'rcum, with rcnio, eo, sto, sedeo,volo; obeo 
yrcetcreo, abdico, e/f'ero, ever to, &c. Some compounds with inter, and prater, 
commonly omit the preposition. The compounds of in, ob, and sub generally 
take the dative; those of super generally the accusative. 

Obs. 8. Some verbs compounded with c, or ex, are followed by an 
accusative or ablative ; as, exire limen. Ter. Exire septis. Virg. 
Some words compounded with prce, take an accusative ; as, Tibur 
aquce prcefluunt. Hor. In some of these cases, however, the accusa- 
tive may be governed by prceter or extra understood. 

Obs. 9. The case governed by the preposition in composition is 
sometimes omitted; as, EmittZre-scrvum, sc. manu. Plaut. EvomZre 
virus, sc. ore, Cic. Eductrc copias, sc. castris. Caes. 

For the construction of interjections, see § 117. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 

§ 137. CONNEXION OF TENSES. 

The tenses in the indicative and subjunctive moods, so far as relates 
to their construction may be divided into two classes, Primary and 
Secondary, as follows, 

Primary. Secondary 

Present, Imperfect. 

Perfect definite. § 44. III. Perfect indefinite. § 44. III. 

Futures. Pluperfect. 

With the primary tenses may be classed the Imperative Mood. 
Of these tenses the Primary are used to express actions, &c. as 
present or future ; the Secondary, in the recital of these actions as 
past. 

In the construction of sentences consisting of different members, 
the subjunctive mood in the subordinate or secondary parts, usually 
corresponds in time to the tense in the primary or leading part 
Hence the following Rule. ■ 

Rule LIII. Any tense of the subjunctive mood 
may follow a tense of the same class in the in- 
dicative; as, 

Pres. Lego, f I read, } 

PERF.DEF.iegi, >ut discam, I have read, > that I may learn 

Fut. Legam, ) I will read. > 

Imper. Lege, ut discas. Read that you may learn. 

Imper. Legibam, ) I was reading, ) 
PER.lNDEF.Zegi, > ut disctrem.l read, > that I might learn. 

Plup. Legtram, ) I had read, ) 

21* 



246 SYNTAX. MOODS. § 138-9 

EXPLANATION.— In clauses connected, the present, the perfect and peri- 
phrastic future with sim or fuerim, § 79. 8, in the subjunctive mood, may fol- 
low either the present, or the perfect definite, or the futures, of the indicative, oi 
the imperative mood. In like manner, the imperfect, the perfect definite, and the 
periphrastic future with essem or fuissem in the subjunctive mood, may follow 
either the imperfect, or the perfect indefinite, or the pluperfect in the indicative 

Obs. 1. When the present tense of the indicative is used in narra- 
tion for the past, § 44. I. 3, it may be followed by the secondary 
tenses of the subjunctive, as Legatos mittunt ut pacem impetrarent. 

Obs. 2. Primary tenses are sometimes followed by secondary, and 
secondary by primary, in order to express actions whose time is dif- 
ferent. 

Obs. 3. When the subjunctive follows an infinitive or participle in 
the primary clause, the class of tenses employed, usually corresponds 
with the time of the verb on which the infinitive or participle de- 
pends. 

N. B. This rule and the observations under it, are to be regarded 
as stating only general principles, the deviations from which, in ex- 
pressing the endless variety of relations among actions with refer- 
ence to time, dependence ; &c. can be learned only by practice and 
close attention to classic usage. 

For the interchange of tenses in the same and in diiferent moods, 
see observations on the tenses, § 44 and 45. 



§ 138. CONSTRUCTION OF THE INDICATIVE 
MOOD. 

The indicative mood is used in Latin to express what is actual and 
certain, in an absolute and independent manner,- as, veni, vidi, vici, 
u I came, saw, and conquered." It is also used in direct and inde- 
pendent interrogations; as. Quid agis ? what are you doing ? 

The indicative mood is used in conditional and dependent clauses, 
to denote, not what is contingent or uncertain, but what is supposed, 
or admitted as fact; as, Si vales bene est, if you are in health it is 
well, i. e. " since you are in health." 

The signification and use of this mood, in its several tenses, have 
been specified, § 44. 



* 139- THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE SUBJUNC- 
TIVE MOOD. 

[For the character and meaning of this mood, in its several tenses, 
see § 42. II. and § 45.] 

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
1. The subjunctive mood is used in dependent clauses 
only, and consequently, must be preceded by another verb 



§ 140 SYNTAX. MOODS. 247 

in the indicative, imperative, or infinitive mood, expressed or 
understood, with which it is connected by a conjunction, a 
relative or indefinite word. On this fact the whole construc- 
tion of this mood depends. 

2. The subjunctive mood, in Latin, is used in all cases 
where the potential or subjunctive mood is used in Eng- 
lish. § 42, II. 2d, and Obs. 3. 

So far, the construction of the subjunctive in Latin agrees, gene- 
rally, with the English and the Greek. Its use, however, is much 
more extensive in Latin, being used in many cases where the indica- 
tive is used in these languages. In the construction of sentences, 
this mood is subject to the following rules. • 

§ 140. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER CONJUNCTIONS, &c. 
Rule LIV. The conjunctions^, quo, licet, ne, uti- 
nam, and dummodo, &c, and words used indefinitely 
in dependent clauses, for the most part, require 
the subjunctive mood ; as, 

Lego ut discam I read that I may learn. 

Nescit quis sim. He knows not who I am. 

EXPLANATION. — The conjunctions requiring the subjunctive mood, are those 
which imply doubt, contingency, uncertainty, and the like, as follows : 

1. Ut, quo, " that ," ne, quominus, " that not," referring to 
the result, end, or design ; take the subjunctive; thus, 

1st. Ut, Si that," denoting a result, after such words as sic, ita, adeo, 
tarn, talis, tantus, is, ejusmodi, is followed by the subjunctive. 

2d. Ut, " that," and ne, " that not," denoting purpose or design; or 
when '• that" is equivalent to iC in order that," '* so that," take 
the subjunctive. 

3d. After verbs signifying to request, admonish, advise, commission, 
encourage, command, and the like; or to endeavor, aim at, or 
accomplish; as, facio, efficio, &c; and sometimes to permit, to 
wish, to be necessary &c, ut and ne usually take the subjunctive. 

4th. Ut, with the subjunctive, usually follows such impersonals as 
fit, fieri non potest, accidit, incidit, occurrit, contingit, evenit, 
usu venit, rarum est, sequiiur , futurum est, rellquum est, relin- 
quitur restat, superest, opus est, est; signifying, it happens, it 
Occurs, it remains, &c. 

2. Si "if;" ut si, quasi, ac si, ceque ac si, perinde ut si, 
allter ac si, velut si, tanquam, ceu, " as if, " expressing a 
condition or supposition commonly take the subjunctive. 

3. Ut, licet, eiiam si, quamvis, " although ;" quin for qui 
non, utnon, or quominus, take the subjunctive. 



248 SYNTAX. MOODS. $ 141 

4. Antequam, priusquam, " before ;" dum, donee, quoad, 
u until ," modo, dum, dummodo, " provided," and the par- 
ticles t)f wishing utinam, O si, ut or uti, for utinam, com- 
monly take the subjunctive. 

5. Interrogative words used indefinitely in dependent claus- 
es or containing an indirect question, take the subjunctive. 

The words thus used are, the particles an, ne, num, utrum, anne, 
annon; — the adverbs ubi, quo, unde, quorsum, quamdiu, quoties, cur, 
quare, quamobrem, quemadmodum, quomodo, ut, quam, quantoperc, 
the adjectives, quantus, quails, quot, quotus, uter; quis, qui, cujas, &c. 

Obs. 1. Many of these conjunctions are used also with the indica- 
tive mood. They are to be regarded merely as connectives, or used 
adverbiafly, denoting circumstances of time, manner, &c. 

Obs. 2. Many other conjunctions are used sometimes with the indica- 
tive, and sometimes with the subjunctive mood; such as, Quum or cum, 
etsi, tamenetsi, quanquam, si, sin, ne, nisi, siquidem, quod, quia, &c. 
Quoniam, quando, and quando quidem, usually have the indicative. 

Obs. 3. Quum or cum, when it signifies time, merely, takes the in 
dicative, and is translated when; as, tempusfuit quum homines vaga- 
bantur. When it denotes a connection of thought, implying depen- 
dence, it takes the subjunctive, and may be translated variously, ac- 
cording to the nature of the connection, since, although, as soon as, 
seeing that, &c, as, cum ea ita sint, u since these things are so." 

Obs. 4. In narration quum is joined with the imperfect, and pluper- 
fect subjunctive, even when it relates to time, but then the event de- 
noted by the subjunctive, usually relates to that expressed in the 
clause on which the subjunctive depends, not only in regard to time, 
but also in some sense as a cause; as cum sciret Clodiusiter neces- 
sarium Miloni esse Lanuvium, Roma, subito ipse profectus est. 

Obs. 5. The conjunction ut, is elegantly omitted after volo, nolo f 
rogo, precor, censeo, suadeo, licet, oportet, necesse est, and the like. 
Also after the imperatives sine,fac, or f actio ; as, Precor venias, li I 
beg (that) you would come;" Fac facias, " see (that) you do it." 

Obs. 6. After the verbs timeo, vereor, and the like, ut is used in a 
negative sense; as, " that not," and ne in an affirmative sense; as, 
Timeo utfaciat, u I fear that he will not do it." Timeo ne faciat, 
11 1 fear that he will do it." In a few examples, however, ut seems 
to have an affirmative and ne a negative meaning. 

6. In oblique discourse § 141, R. VI. Exp. the verb in 
dependent clauses takes the subjunctive after any conjunc- 
tive term. 



$ 141. THE SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER THE RELATIVE. 

Rule LV. The relative qui, qua, quod, requires 

the subjunctive, when it refers to an indefinite, 

negative or interrogative word — to words imply- 



§ 141 SYNTAX. MOODS. 249 

ing comparison, — or assigns the reason, cause or 
end of that which precedes, — and also in all cases 
of oblique narration. 

This General Rule may be subdivided into the following, 
SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule I. When the relative qui, quce, quod, refers to an 
indefinite, negative, or interrogative word, it requires the 
subjunctive mood , as, 

Sunt qui dicant, Some people say. 

Nemo est qui hand int ell ig at, There is no one who does not understand. 
Quis est qui uiilia fugiat ? Who is there that shuns what is useful ? 
EXPLANATION— This rule takes effect only when the antecedent is some- 
thing indefinite and when the relative clause is the predicate of the sentence, 
i. e. when it expresses what is affirmed or denied respecting the subject of the 
verb, and has for its antecedent, the indefinite, negative or interrogative itself, 
and not any intervening word. These are indispensable conditions of this rule. 

Obs. 1. The indefinites referred to in this rule are the indefinite 
pronouns, § 34. Obs. 1, and § 35. (except quidam,) and the periphras- 
tic expressions, est qui, sunt qui, fuerunt qui, li Some one," li some f 
to which may be added the verbs reperio, iauenio, habeo, adsum, desum, 
venio, and some others used in a similar manner, by which indefinite 
expressions are formed nearly of the same import with est qui, sunt 
qui, &c; as, Omnis cetas quod agat inveniet. 

The negative antecedents most common under this rule are such as 
Nemo est, nullus est, unus non est, alius non est or extat, nihil est, nee 
or non quisquam est, vix ullus est, nee ullu-s est, vix decimus quisque est, 
(or any other ordinal used in a similar manner,) non multi sunt, non 
multum est ; also, non est, or nihil est, meaning " there is no cause," 
or " reason why,-' and also after non or nihil hablo. After these 
last, quod, " which," must follow, governed by propter understood ; 
as, Non est quod scribas. 

The interrogative expressions in the antecedent clause under this 
rule are chiefly these. Quis est? quantus est? Uter est? Ecquis est ? 
Numquisest? An quisquam est ? an est aliquist Quotusquisque est? 
Qu-otus est ? Quot sunt? Quam multi sunt ? And also, Quid est ? Num- 
quid est ? " What cause V' as, Num quid est quod timeas ? " why should 
you fear ?" 

Note. — Interrogatives under this rule are of a general character and usually 
imply a negation; aiS,Quisestquifaciat? " Who is there that does it?" i.e. 
" nobody does it." 

Rule II. The relative is followed by the subjunctive when 
the relative and antecedent clauses involve a comparison, or 
when the latter expresses the purpose, object or design, of 
something expressed by the former ; as, 

Dignus qui ametur, " Worthy to be loved." Quis tarn esset amen* 
qui semper viv£ret ? " Who would be so foolish as to live always V 



260 SYNTAX.— MOODS. § 141 

EXPLANATION.— In all cases under this rule the relative is equivalent tout 
with the personal pronoun representing the antecedent ; i. e. it is used for ut 
ego, ut tu, ut ille, utnos, ut vos, ut illi. In such cases, ut with the personal 
pronoun, is frequently used instead of the relative. Here, also, the relative 
clause must belong, not to the subject, but to the predicate of the sentence, 
for in such cases only can it be resolved into ut ego, &c. 

Obs. 2. The relative is used in this sense and requires the 
subjunctive, 

1st. When it comes after dignus, indignus, idoneuSj and the like in 
the predicate ; as, Patres, si dignum qui (ut ille) secundus ab Romulo 
numeretur, crearitis, auctores fient. 

2d. When it follows tarn, tantus, adeo ; as, Quis est tarn LynceuSj 
qui in tantis, tenebris nihil offendat? i. e. ut in tantis, &c. lJ Who is 
so quick sighted that he would not stumble in such darkness?" — In 
like manner when it follows talis, ejusmodi, hujusmodi, the subjunc- 
tive is commonly used ; as, est innocentia affectio talis animi qui no- 
ceat nemini. — Also after is, ille, and hie in the sense of talis ; as, 
Non tu is es qui nescias, '• you are not such a one as not to know." 
Sometimes in such cases ut takes the place of qui; as, Neque enim 
is es, Catalina, ut te pudor revocdrit, &c. 

3d. When it follows a comparative with quamj as, Major sum quam 
cui possit fortuna nocere. 

4th. When the relative clause expresses the purpose, object or de- 
sign, for Avhich the person mentioned in the antecedent clause is ap- 
pointed, or the thing spoken of is possessed or done ; as, Lacedcemonii 
legatos Athenas miserunt qui (i. e. ut illi) eum absentem accusirent. 
In such sentences the relative and subjunctive may be properly ren- 
dered to, in order to; thus, " The Lacedemonians sent ambassadors 
to Athens to accuse (or in order to accuse) him in his absence." Some- 
times here also, ut takes the place of the relative ; as, missus sum ut 
(i. e. qui) te adducerem. 

Obs. 3. When qui combines with its signification as a relative, or 
when the preceding clause implies, a force equal to so that, such that, 
the man to, such a man as, it requires the subjunctive ; as, stultum est 
timer e quod vitare non possis, " It is foolish to fear that which (i. e. 
such a thing as) you cannot avoid." In all such cases the antecedent 
clause conveys a vague and general idea, i- e. the person or things 
referred to are regarded as a species or class rather than as individuals. 

Rule III. When the relative with its clause assigns the 
cause or reason of the action or event announced by the an- 
tecedent clause, it requires the subjunctive ; as, 

Peccavuse mihi videor qui ate discesstrim, u I think that I have 
erred in having (or, because 1) left you." 

EXPLANATION. — In all constructions of this kind, the relative is equivalent 
to quum, quod, quia, or quoniam ego, tu, is, nos, &c. signifying u because, ,; or 
" seeing that I," lt thou, 7 ' &c. 

Obs. 4. The relative has this force in the expressions quippe qui, ut 
qui, utpote qui, and consequently is followed by the subjunctive ; as 



§ 141 SYNTAX. MOODS. 251 

Libros non contemno, equidem, quippe qui nunquam legerim, '' I do 
not indeed despise books for, (or because) I have never read them." 

Rule IV. When qui possesses a power equal to quan- 
quam, or etsi is, or to si, modo, or dummodo, "Although — if — 
provided that he, she, it," &c. it requires the subjunctive 
mood ; as, 

Tu aquam pumice postulas, qui, ipse sitiat, " You demand water 
from a pumice stone, though itself is parched with thirst. " Laco, con- 
st! ii quamvis egregii quod non ipse afferret inimicus, " Laco was the 
enemy of any measure, however excellent, if (i. e. provided that) he 
himself did not propose it." 

Rule V. The relative qui, takes the subjunctive after unus 
and solus; when they restrict the affirmation to a particular 
subject; as, 

Hcbc est una contentio qua adhuc permanserit, " This is the only 
dispute which has remained till this time." 

Rule VI. In oblique or indirect discourse, the relative re- 
quires the subjunctive mood ; as, 

Socrates dictre solebat, omnes in eo quod scirent satis esse eloquen- 
tes. " Socrates was accustomed to say, that all were eloquent enough 
in that ivhich they knew." 

EXPLANATION. — Discourse is said to be direct, when a writer or speaker 
delivers his own sentiments, — oblique, when a person relates in his own lan- 
guage, what another speaker or writer said ; an example will best illustrate 
this distinction. — Tacitus introduces Galgacus, addressing the Caledonian ar- 
my as follows. "When I contemplate the causes of the war, and the necessi- 
ty to which we are reduced, great is my confidence that this day, and this union 
of yours, will prove the beginning of universal liberty to Britain." This is the 
direct discourse. If, instead of introducing Galgacus himself to speakhis own 
speech, the historian had only told us what he said, he would have used the 
oblique or indirect style, thus. Galgacus said, " that when he contemplated 
the causes of the war, and the necessity to which they, (the Roman army,) 
were reduced, his confidence was great, that that day and that union of theirs 
would prove the beginning of universal liberty to Britain. 7 ' 

In the first of these, or the direct discourse, it will be observed that when the 
speaker refers to himself, he uses the first person, "I," "we." When he refers to 
those addressed, he uses the second person, "thou," "you," — and that the 
leading verbs in Latin are all in the indicative mood, and independent of any 
previous word. But in the second or oblique discourse, the third person only, 
is used, whether the speaker is said to refer to himself, or his hearers, or a 
third person. And the leading verbs in Latin, are in the infinitive mood, or in 
the subjunctive with ut, and in either case dependent on the verb with which 
the account is introduced, such as, "he said," "stated," "replied," or the 
like. It is evident, therefore, that while in both forms, the same idea is ex- 
pressed in nearly the same language, the construction of the sentence in each 
is entirely different; thus, in direct discourse : Antonius inquit, " Ars earuin 
rerum est qu<z sciuntur. Cic Quinctilian relates the same thing in the 06- 



252 SYNTAX.— MOODS. § 141 

• 

Uque form ; thus, u Antontus ait, art em earum rerum esse quce scianlur. Here 
the leading verb in the direct form, is est, in the indicative mood, having no 
dependence on any previous word, and having its subject in the nominative case. 
In the oblique form, the same verb is in the infinitive, esse; it is dependent on 
ait, and has its subject in the accusative. In the first, the verb in the subordi- 
nate clause, is in the indicative, Sciuntur; in the last, it is in the subjunctive 
mood, sciantur. Hence, the following general principle. 

In every unmixed example of oblique narration, two 
moods only are admissible, the infinitive and subjunctive, and 
consequently, as the relative is never employed but in the 
secondary, and subordinate members of a sentence, it must 
always, in oblique statements, be followed by the subjunc- 
tive. 

Obs. 5. In connection with this general principle, however, two things 
must be noticed. 

1st. In oblique discourse, the narrator frequently introduces a re- 
mark of his own, for the purpose of explanation, but yet so closely 
interwoven with the discourse he is reporting, as to seem to be a part 
of it. Such remark is usually introduced with the relative, and the 
indicative, and may be detected by this construction: Thus, Disseruit 
Ccesar, u non quidem sibi ignara" quae de Silano vulgabantur, " Sed 
non ex rumore statuendum" Coesar replied that those things, indeed, 
viz: which were rumoured concerning Silanus, were not unknown to 
him, Scc.Tac Here, the clause, quce de Silano vulgabantur, is not to 
be regarded as a part of what Caesar said, but as a clause thrown in 
by the historian to inform his readers what things they were which 
Csesar meant. But if the verb had been vulgarentur, it would have 
shewn that it was a part of what Csesar said. 

2d. In animated oblique narration, the historian sometimes sudden- 
ly passes from the oblique to the direct discourse, and instead of re- 
porting the remarks of the speaker, introduces him, as it were, to 
speak for himself. This is always manifest by the transition, from 
the use of the infinitive and subjunctive, to that of the indicative, 
and from the use of the third person to denote the speaker, and the 
person addressed, to that of the first and second. The following is 
often quoted as an appropriate example of this. (Oblique) " Sa~ 
bince mulieres dirimSre infestas acies, hinc patres, hinc vivos or antes, 71 
ne se sanguine nefando, soceri, generique respergerent; ne parricidio 
macular ent partus suos, nepotum illi, liber urn hi progeniem. (Direct) 
Si piget ajfinitatis inter vos, si connubii piget, in nos vertite iras, nos 
causa belli, nos vulntrum ac ccedium viris ac parentibus samus, melius 
peribimus , quam sine alterisvestrum viduce aut orbce vivemus. Liv. 1. 13. 

Obs. 6. A verb in the Future perfect indicative, in direct discourse, 
will always take the pluperfect subjunctive, when the same sentence 
is thrown into the oblique form, whatever be the tense of the intro- 
ductory verb; thus, Dabitur quodcunque optdris. Ov.; in the direct 
discourse, is thus rela'ted by Cicero, in the oblique form : Sol Phce- 
thonti Jilio facturum esse dixit quidquid optasset. 

Obs. 7. To this construction may be referred the subjunctive con- 
nected by a relative or casual conjunction with the preceding verb in 



§ 142-3 SYNTAX. MOODS. 253 

any of its parts, for the purpose of expressing, not what the writer as- 
serts himself, but what is alleged by others; as, Socrates accusatus 
est quod corrumperct juventutem, " Socrates was accused, because (as 
was alleged,) he corrupted the youth." The indicative here would 
assert on the part of the writer, that Socrates did corrupt the youth. 

Obs. 8. When an infinitive or subjunctive mood has a 
clause connected with it by a relative or other connecting 
word, for the purpose of restricting the predicate, otherwise 
indefinite, the verb of the latter clause is put in the subjunc- 
tive mood ; as, 

Quid enim potest esse tarn per spicuum, quam esse aliquod numen quo 
hcEc regantur. " For what can be so clear, as that there is some 
divinity by whom these things are governed ?" 



§ 142. CONSTRUCTION OF THE IMPERATIVE. 

1. The Imperative mood is used to command, exhort, &c. § 42. III. 
Its subject, with which it agrees by Rule IV. is the person or persons 
addressed in the command, &c, and hence, it is properly used only 
in the second person. In Latin, as well as in Greek, the imperative 
mood has a distinct form for the third person- it is, however, but 
seldom used, and chiefly in the enacting of laws, having the force of 
a command on those for whom they are designed. 

2. With the imperative, not is expressed by ne, and nor by neve; 
as, Ne crede colori. Virg. Hominemmortuum in urbene sepelito, ne- 
ve urlto. Cic. 

3. Instead of the simple imperative, sometimes fac or cave, with 
the subjunctive, are used, and noli with the infinitive j as, Fac ve?iias, 
u come;" cave existimes, '•' do not think;" Nolitimere, " do not fear." 
For other tenses, used imperatively, see § 42. Obs. 9. 



$ 143. CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE. 

[For the tenses of the infinitive mood, in connection with different 
tenses of the verb, see § 47.] 

The infinitive mood, in Latin, is used in two ways; First, as a ver- 
bal noun, and Second, as a verb. As a verbal noun, it has no sub- 
ject; as a verb, it always has. Without a subject it cannot form a 
proposition, or express an affirmation; with a subject it always does. 
In the first case it comes under the regimen of the verb, either alone 
as a verbal noun, or with the words depending upon it, as a substantive 
phrase In the second it comes under its regimen only in connection 
with its subject, as a distinct, though dependent proposition or sub- 
stantive clause. Hence, all that belongs to the construction of this 
mood, may be comprised in what relates to the use of it, in these two 
ways. 

22 



254 SYNTAX. MOODS. § 1 

$ 144. I. THE INFINITIVE WITHOUT A SUBJECT. 

The infinitive without a subject, may be regarded as a 
verbal noun in the singular number, neuter gender, and in 
form indeclinable, but differing from all other nouns, inas- 
much as it involves the idea of time, and has all the power 
of governing that belongs to the verb. The character of the 
infinitive as a noun, is manifest from its being used in almost 
every way that a noun is. It is used, 

1. As the nominative to a verb; as, Utinam emori fortunis meis 
honestus exitus esset; or as the nominative after the verb; as^Sive il~ 
lud erat sine fun tre ferri. 

2. As a case in apposition to a preceding nominative; as, Res erat 
spectaculo digna, videre Xerxem, &c. It was a thing worthy of being 
seen, to see Xerxes, &c. 

3. It is used as a genitive after substantives and adjectives; as, 
Tempus est abire, for abeundi: Soli cantire perlti Arcades, for cantan- 
di or cantits. Rule VII. IX. 

4. As a dative after adjectives, &c; thus, Et vos servire magis 
quam imperare parati estis. Rule XVI. 

5. As an accusative after an active verb; as, Da mihi fallere, Hor. 
Terr am cumprimum arant, proscindere appellant; cum itirum, offrin- 
gere dicunt. Varr. — After a preposition: as, Nihil interest inter dare 
et accipere. Sen. Praeter plorare. Hor. Prseter loqui. Liv. 

6. As a vocative; as, O vivere nostrum, for O vita nostra. 

7. As an ablative in various constructions; as, dignus amari; as 
the case absolute; thus, Audito regem in Siciliam tendere. This ex- 
ample, however, has a subject regem, Rule XXIII. 

8. It has an adjective or pronoun agreeing with it ; as, Scire tuum 
nihil est ; Ipsum dicere nunquam non ineptum est, &c. Cic. In this 
way we may account for the poetic " dulce loqui, 1 '' il rider e deco- 
rum," &c. 

9. It governs the genitive like a noun ; as, cujus non dimicare fuit 
vincere. 

It is however, chiefly as the subject or the object of a verb that 
it is thus used. Hence the following rules. 

Rule LVI. One verb being the subject of ano- 
ther, is put in the infinitive ; as, 

Facile est queri, To complain is easy. 

Mentiri turpe est, To lie is base. 

EXPLANATION.— In the first example the subject or thing spoken of is ex- 
pressed by the infinitive queri, which is therefore the nominative to the verb est, 
A noun used instead of queri would have to be in the nominative case. In such 
sentences it is manifestly improper to say that est governs queri, just as it would 
be improper to say the verb governs its nominative. This rule applies also to 
the infinitive with a subject 



§144 



-"SYNTAX. MOODS. 255 



Obs. 1. A proper atfention to this rule will show that many verbs 
considered impersonal, or thought to be used impersonally are not 
really so, but have an infinitive or a clause of a sentence for their 
subject or nominative ; thus, Nee profuit Hydras, cresctre per damnum, 
il Nor did it profit the Hydra to grow by his wounds." Ovid. Here, 
instead of saying that profuit is used impersonally, and governs cres- 
elre in the infinitive ; the true construction is that profuit is used per- 
sonally, and has cresctre for its nominative. So the following, Cadit 
in eundem misereri et invidere . Cic. Vacare culpa magnum est sola- 
tium; Neque est tefallere quidqua?n, &c. § 101. Obs. 3. 

Rule LVII. One verb governs another, as its 
object, in the infinitive ; as, 

Cupio discere. I desire to learn. 

EXPLANATION".— The infinitive mood under this rule is equivalent to a noun 
in the case which the preceding verb usually governs : Thus, in the exam- 
ple Cupio is an active verb and governs discere, as if it were a noun in the ac- 
cusative. The meaning is that a verb, used as the object of another without a 
conjunction or connective word, must be put in the infinitive. This Rule also 
applies to the infinitive with a subject. 

Note.— In all cases under this rule, of the infinitive without a subject, the in- 
finitive expresses an act, or state, of the subject of the preceding verb. 

Obs. 2. The infinitive without a subject is used only after certain 
verbs, especially such as denote desire, ability, intention, or endeavor, 
such as, cupio, opto, volo, nolo, malo; — possum, queo, nequeo, valeo, 
cogito, conor, tendo. disco, doceo, debeo, &c. By the poets it is used 
after fuge, parce for noli, and sometimes after caveo, fugio, gaudeo, 
&c. In a few instances it is used after verbs of motion, to denote a 
purpose ; as, introit videre, u He came to see." Ter. Iniit consilia 
tollere reges, u He devised a plan to destroy the kings." 

Obs. 3. In many cases the infinitive after such verbs may be 
changed for the infinitive with a subject ; as, cupio me esse clementem. 
Cic. for es.se clemens or clementem. § 103- Obs. 6. Or for the sub- 
junctive with ut; as, sententiam ne diceret recusavit, for sententiam 
dicere. 

Obs. 4. The infinitive without a subject is also used after adjec- 
tives and nouns. So used, it is equivalent to a noun in the case 
governed by such adjective or noun. See examples, § 144. No. 
3.4. 6. 

Obs. 5. Sometimes the infinitive is understood ; as, Ei provinciam 
Numidiam populus jussit; sc. dari. 

The Historical Infinitive. 

Obs. 6. The verb governing the infinitive is sometimes omitted; 
especially is this the case in historical narration when the infinitive 
follows a nominative case in the sense of the Imperfect indicative, or 
the Perfect indefinite ; as, Invidere omnes mihi, " All envied me." 
Ter. At Romani domi militiceque intenti, festinare, para re, alius alium 
hortari. Sail. When thus used it is supposed to be governed by 
cozpit or cozperunt understood. Cases occur, however, in which 
this supplement cannot be made; as, Verum ingeniumejus haud ab- 
surdum; posse factre versus, jocum mover -e, &c. Sail. 



256 SYNTAX. MOODS.. § 145 

$ 145. II. THE INFINITIVE WITH A SUBJECT. 

1. The infinitive with a subject possesses the character of the verb 
and affirms of its subject as in the indicative or subjunctive moods ; 
but only in subordinate and dependent propositions. These proposi- 
tions themselves have a substantive character, and generally stand in 
the relation of substantives to the verb on which they depend 5 some- 
times as a nominative, bat generally as an accusative or the ab- 
lative of manner or cause. Thus used, they maybe called substantive 
clauses — and as such they fall under the two preceding rules. Thus, 

1st. As the nominative according to Rule LVI. Tenon istud au- 
divisse mirum est, "That you have not heard that is wonderful." Here 
Te non istud audivisse stands as the nominative to est. 

2d. As the object or accusative after the verb, according to Rule 
LVII. Mir or te non scribere, " I wonder that you do not write." 
Here, te non scrib&re stands as the object of miror which governs it as 
an accusative by Rule XX. See Exp. 2. 

Rule LVIII. The subject of the infinitive is put 
in the accusative; as, 

Gaudeo te valere, I am glad that you are well. 

EXPLANATION. — The subject of the infinitive is the person or thing spoken 
of in the dependent clause and may be, as in Rule IV. a noun, a pronoun, &c. 
and is always to be in the accusative case ; except as in § 144. Obs. 6. Under this 
rule the infinitive with its subject forms a distinct proposition and is equiva- 
lent to the indicative, or subjunctive mood in English together with the connec- 
tive '* that." Thus in the example, te valere contains the simple proposition 
11 You are well." The equivalent of the English " that," connecting it as a 
subordinate clause with the preceding verb is implied in the infinitive form. If 
the infinitive stand after an accusative which does not form with it a distinct 
proposition, i. e. which is not its subject, it does not belong to this rule, but 
the accusative is governed by Rule XX.; as, Proteus pecus egit altos visere 
montes. Hence, 

OBSERVATIONS. . 

Obs. 1. The English particle "that," maybe called the sign of the 
accusative before the infinitive, being used to connect the infinitive 
clause with the preceding. It may often be omitted, however, in 
translating, as it frequently is in English ; thus, jSiunt regem advert, 
tare, il They say the king is coming/' or, " that the king is coming." 

Obs. 2. Tl e accusative in Latin, is translated by the nominative 
in English. Hence, the accusative of the relative pronoun, referring 
to persons must be rendered who, not whom ; as, Quern confectum 
vulneribus diximus , " Who, we said, was exhausted with his wounds." 

Obs. 3. When the subject of the infinitive is the same with the 
subject of the preceding verb, it is seldom expressed, unless required 
to be emphatic ; as, Pollicitus sum scripturum ^esse) sc. me, " I 
promised that I would write." After verbs signifying to be accustom- 
ed, to dare, I can, I ought, the infinitives esse, judicari, videri, &c. 
having the same subject with the preceding verb, have an adjective 



§145 



SYNTAX. MOODS. 257 



or noun after them in the nominative case, indicating that the subject 
of the infinitive understood is regarded as a nominative according to 
the Greek construction. Gr. Gr. § 175. Exc. Thus, solet tristis 
videri ; aude sapiens esse ; debes esse diligens. See also, & 103. Obs. 
5-8. and 150. 3. 3d. 

Obs. 4. When the preceding verb is in the passive voice, the sub- 
ject of the infinitive may be changed into the subject of that verb, 
or remain unchanged in the accusative, the passive verb being used 
impersonally, or rather having the infinitive clause for its subject ; 
thus, Matrem Pausanice eo tempore vixisse dicitur, or, Mater Pausa- 
nice eo tempore vixisse dicitur. It is said that the mother of Pausanias 
was living at that time, or, the mother of Pausanias is said to have 
been living, 8cc. 

Obs. 5. The accusative with the infinitive in a subordinate clause 
is equivalent to the subjunctive with ut, quod, &c. " that," preceding ; 
as, GaudZo te valere, or Gaud&oqubd valeas. Hence, the one ex- 
pression may often be changed for the other. Usage, however, has 
given a preference to the one form in some cases, and to the other in 
others ; as, 

1st. When the dependent clause expresses purpose or design, or 
when " that" is equivalent to " in order that, so that, ut with the 
subjunctive is used. § 140. 1. 2d. 

2d. Aftei verbs of endeavoring , aiming, accomplishing, such dLsfacio } 
efficio, perficio, &c. the subjunctive with ut is used. 

3d. Verbs signifying to request, demand, admonish, advise, commis- 
sion, encourage, command, and the like usually take the subjunctive. 

4th. Ut with the subjunctive follows verbs signifying to happen, to 
occur, &c. as, fit, incidit, occurrit, contingit • est. restat, super- 
est, &c. 

5th. Verbs signifying willingness, unwillingness, permission, neces- 
sity, &c. commonly take the accusative with the infinitive. Also 
generally verbs denoting seeing, hearing, knowing , feeling , thinking, 
saying, &c, but sometimes they take the subjunctive. 

Obs. 6. After such verbs as existimo, puto, spero, affirmo, suspicor, 
&c. the place of the future infinitive is elegantly supplied by fore, or 
futurum esse, followed by ut with the subjunctive ; as. Nunquam pu- 
tavi fore ut supplex ad te venlrem. for (me) venturum esse. 

This construction is necessary when the verb has no supine and 
consequently no future infinitive active. See § 47. 9. Fo re is some- 
times used with the perfect participle passive to denote a future ac- 
tion in the passive voice ; as, Quod videret nomine pads bellum invo- 
lutum fore. 

Obs. 7. The verb on which the infinitive depends is sometimes 
omitted especially in interrogations, or exclamations, expressive of in- 
dignation ; as, Mene incepto desistere nee posse, &c. Virg. In such 
cases, some such expression as credibile est is understood. 



22* 



258 SYNTAX. MOODS. § 146 

$ 146. CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLES 

[For the tenses and use of the participles in certain connexions, 

see § 49.] 

Rule LIX. Participles, like adjectives, agree 
with their substantives in gender, number, and 
case ; as, 

Homo car ens fraude, A man wanting guile. 

Pax tantum amdta. Peace so greatly loved. 

Rem. Participles together with gerunds and supines being parts of the verb, 
govern the case of their own verb. So that no separate rule for the govern- 
ment of cases by these is at all necessary. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. The verbs do, reddo, volo, euro, facto, habZo, comperio, with 
the perfect participle form a periphrasis similar to the compound 
tenses in English and other modern languages thus, Habeo comper- 
turrij for comperi, - I have found j" Missamiram faciei foriram mit~ 
tet y &c. 

Obs. 2. The perfect passive participle is often used to supply the 
place of a verbal noun, when such a noun is wanting, or but seldom 
used,- as, Hce littera? recitatse magnum luctum fee Brunt, " The read- 
ing of this letter, (not '/ this letter being read") caused great mourn- 
ing." So, Captum Tarentum, " The taking of Tarentum;" receptus 
Hannibal, " the reception of Hannibal." Ab urbe condita, "from 
the building of the city," &c. 

Obs. 3. The future active participle is frequently used to denote 
the purpose or design of an action, and is in such case rendered to, 
in order to; as, Ad Jovem Hammonem per git consulturus de origine 
sua, u He goes to Jupiter Ammon to (or in order to) consult him 
about his origin." So also the present ; as, petens veniam venit. 

Obs. 4. The future participle in -dus, also denotes a purpose, when 
joined with verbs signifying to give, to deliver, to agree for, to have, 
to receive, to undertake, &c. as, Testamentum tibi tradit legendum, 
He delivers his will to you to be read; So, His aera dedit habendum. 

Obs. 5. The participle in -dus, generally implies the idea of pro- 
priety, necessity, or obligation. This is almost always the case when 
it agrees with the subject of a sentence; as, Delenda est Carthago, 
Carthage must be destroyed. Sometimes, also, when it agrees with 
words not in the subject; as, Facta narrabas dissimulanda tibi, u You 
were relating things which ought to have been concealed by you." 
The doer in such constructions, when expressed, must be in the dative. 
§ 126. Obs. 3. 

Note. — In most other cases, the participle in dus, is used as a present parti- 
ciple passive, § 49. Note 3. 

Obs. 6. Participles are often used in Latin, instead of a verb, and 
particle in explanatory and adversative clauses, to mark a variety of 
accompanying circumstances, and relations belonging to some noun in 
the leading proposition of the sentence; as, Curio ad focum sedenti 



§146 



SYNTAX. MOODS. 259 



magnum auri pondus Samnites attuljrunt. To Curius as he was sit- 
ting by the lire, &c. Dionysius Syracusis expulsus Corinthi pueros do- 
ctbat, Dionysius when he was expelled from Syracuse, &c. 

Sometimes, as in Greek, it is used to connect an accompanying 
with the main action, in the same subject as the cause, manner, or 
means of effecting it: as, Hoc faciens vivam melius, By doing this I 
will live better. Hor. So used, it is equivalent to the ablative Gerund. 

Obs. 7. When a participle does not refer to some leading subject in 
the proposition, but to a new subject introduced, not depending on 
any word in the sentence, the participle is put with that new subject, 
in what is called? 

• THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 

Rule LX. A substantive with a participle, 
whose case depends on no other word, is put in the 
ablative absolute ; as, 

c 7„ „*.*• «#„ s • + rr 7 ^ The sun rising, or while the 
Sole orient e fusriunt Tenebrce, < . , ?' a . 

J 3 ' ( sun rises, darkness mes away. 

EXPLANATION. — This rule properly belongs to the substantive only, with 
which the participle then agrees by the preceding rale. 

Obs. 8. This construction is much more frequent in Latin than in 
other languages, partly because there is no perfect participle in the 
active voice. When, therefore, in connection with an active verb, a 
past act of its subject is to be expressed by the participle, the per- 
fect participle passive must be used, and hence, the object of the act 
must be introduced as a new subject, which, having no dependence 
on any word in the sentence, must under the rule, be put in the abla- 
tive absolute. Thus, in English we say. Caesar having sent forward 
the Cavalry, followed with all his forces. There being no perfect 
participle in Latin corresponding to " having sent," which would 
agree with Ccesar in the nominative case, this clause must be chang- 
ed into the passive form; thus, Casar, equitatu praemisso, subseque- 
bitur, &c. literally, Caesar, the cavalry being sent before, follow- 
ed, Sec. 

As the perfect participle of deponent verbs has an active significa- 
tion, it is not necessary to resort to such a change in the use of them. 
Thus. Caesar hcec locutus concilium dimisit, " Ccesar having said 
these things, dismissed the council." With the participle of a verb, 
not deponent, the passive form and the ablative would be used thus; 
Ccesar his dictis concilium dimuit, &c. " Caesar, these things being 
said, dismissed the council." — The first of these expressions, besides 
being more direct, is also much more definite, for here, there is no 
doubt as to who said the things referred to, but in the second it is 
left in doubt, whether the things referred to were spoken by Ccesar 
or by some other. This doubt can be removed only by the context, or 
by express mention of the doer, which is not often done. In the fol- 
lowing sentence the two forms are combined. Ccesar omnium remo- 
tis equis, cohortatus suos prcelium commisit. — So, Agros Remorum 
depopulate omnibus vicis aedificiisque incensis. Caes. 



260 SYNTAX. GERUNDS, § 147 

Note, — A few instances occur in which this construction is used when there 
fs no change of subject, and where a different case would have expressed the 
same thing ; thus, Lcglo ex castris VarrGnis 7 adstante et inspectante ipso, for 
adstantis et adspectantis ipsius. 

Obs. 9. The ablative absolute in the case of deponent, as well as 
of other verbs, is used to indicate the order and connection of events 
narrated, as in the above examples; or to mark the time of an action by 
reference to that of another action; as, Pythagoras Tarquinio Superbo 
regnante, in Italiam venit, Pythagoras came into Italy in the reign of 
Tarquin the Proud. In all such cases, it is equivalent to the subjunc- 
tive with a connective word. Thus, his dictis in try? former example, 
is equivalent to quum hcec dixisset — Tarquinio superbo regnante, to 
quum Tarquinius Superbus regnaret; and so of otkers. 

Obs. 10. The verb sum having no present participle, two nouns, or 
a noun and adjective, are used in the case absolute without a partici- 
ple, which is supplied in English by the w^ord being; thus, se duce, 
u he being leader;" se consule, u he being consul," or, u in his con- 
sulship;" So, C Duillio et Cn. Cornelio Asind consulibus. 

Obs. 11. Some word, phrase, or clause of a sentence, sometimes 
supplies the place of the substantive, and has a participle with it in 
the ablative; as, Nondum comperto, quamregionem hostes petissent; 
Audito Barium appropinquare; Vale dicto, &c. 

Obs. 12. Sometimes the noun is understood as, Parto quod avebas. 
Sometimes a plural substantive is joined with a singular participle; 
as, Nobis prcesente. For the construction of Gerundives, see next 
section. 



§ 147. GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES. 

The Gerund is a verbal noun in the singular number, governed in 
its cases as other nouns, and having the same power of Government 
as the verb. As, therefore, the rules which apply to the government 
of nouns and verbs, apply to the gerund, it is unnecessary to repeat 
them here. All that is peculiar to the construction of the gerund, is 
comprised in the following Rules and Observations. 

Rule LXL The gerund, as the subject of the 
verb Est, Implies necessity, and governs the da- 
tive; as, 

Nom. Legendum est mihi, Reading is to me, i. e. I must read. 

Nom. Moriendum est omnibus, Dying is to all, i. e. all must die. 
Ace. Scio moriendum essemihi, I know that dying is to me, i. e. that 

I must die. 

EXPLANATION. — In the first and second example, the gerund is in the nomi- 
native case,* and is the subject of est, by Rule IY. In the third example it is 

* Some Grammarians who regard the gerund as a verbal noun, speak of it as 
such only in the oblique cases. They think that the nominative of the verbal 
is supplied by the infinitive mood, and that what is called the nominative of the 
gerund, is really the neuter of the participle in dus, in a passive sense, ioined 



§ 147 SYNTAX. GERUNDS, ETC. 261 

in the accusative, and is the subject of esse, by Rule I/VTJI. The necessity 
implied in this construction, is stronger than that expressed by the participle 
'n dus. Literce. Scribcndcc sunt mihi, is simply i( a letter is to be written, " or 
u should be written by me;" but Scribendum est mihi litems, is, H I must write 
a letter," §79. 9. 

Obs. 1. The dative after the gerund in this construction, is often 
understood,- as orandum est (sc. tibi) ut sit sana meus in corpore sano. 

Obs. 2. The gerund in di, of the genitive case, is govern- 
ed by substantives or adjectives: as, 

Tempus legendi, Time of reading, § 106. Rule VI. 

Cupidus discendi, Desirous of learning, § 107. Rule IX. 

Obs. 3. The gerund in do, of the dative case, is governed 
by adjectives signifying usefulness or fitness 5 as, 

Charta utilis scribendo, Paper useful for writing, § 111. Rule XVI, 

Sometimes it is governed by verbs; as, Adesse scribendo. Cic. Ap» 
tat habendo ensem. Virg. Is finis censendo /actus est. 

Obs. 4. The gerund in dum, of the accusative case, when 
not the subject of the infinitive, is governed by the preposi- 
tions, ad, inter, &c. ; as. 

Inter docendutn, In time of teaching. 

Obs. 5. The gerund in do, of the ablative case, is govern- 
ed by the prepositions a, ab, de, e, ex, or in; as, 
Poena a peccando absterret, Punishment frightens from sinning". 

Or without a preposition, as the ablative of manner, or 
cause ; as, 

Memoria excolendo augetur, The memory is improved by exercising it. 
Defessus sum ambulando, I am wearied w T ith walking. 

Obs. 6. The gerund as a verbal noun, resembles the infinitive, and 
is oltenputfor it; as, Est tempus legendi or legtre. The gerund, how- 
ever, is never joined w r ith an adjective, and is sometimes taken in a 
passive sense; as, Cum Tisidium vocaretur adimperandum, to receive 
orders. Urlt videndo, i. e. dum vidStur, by being seen. 

with the verb est, used impersonally. Thus Studendum est mihi, they think 
should be literally rendered " It is to be studied by me." Though this solutionis 
plausible, and would seem to answer in many cases, there are others in 
which we, at least, cannot see how it could be applied. It cannot be applied 
unless the participle in dus in all cases has, or may have a passive sense ; but 
of this there is no evidence, and facts are opposed to it. Thus, it will hardly 
be admitted as a literal rendering of moriendum est omnibus, to say " it is to be 
died by all," and it certainly cannot be so used in those examples in which it 
governs the same case that it does in its active sense ; thus, Vtrum pace nobis 
an bello esset utendum. Cic. Quumsuo cuique judicio, utendum sit Indeed, the 
fact that gerunds, in all cases, do govern the case of their own verb, seems to 
be opposed to their being considered as parts of the passive participle in dus 



262 SYNTAX. GERUNDS, ETC. §147 

CONSTRUCTION OF GERUNDIVES. 

Rule LXIL Gerunds governing the accusative, 
are elegantly turned into gerundives in dus 9 which 
with the sense of the gerund, instead of govern- 
ing, agree with their substantive in gender, num- 
ber, and case ; as, 

Gerund, Tempos petendi pacem, > Time f segki 

Gerundive, Tempus petenace pacts, > 

Gerund, Ad petendum pacem, > T ki _ 

Gerundive, Ad petendam pacem, $ x ° seeKin o P eace - 

geZJive, i $3 5c? I *™ -eking peace. 

EXPLANATION.— This rule applies only to the oblique cases. In the first 
of the above examples, the Gerund petendi is governed in the genitive by tem- 
pus according to Rule VI. and then governs pacem in the accusative by Rule 
XX. In the gerundive form, the genitive pads is governed by tempus, by Rule 
VI, and the gerundive petendce agrees with it by Rule II. In the gerund form the 
gerund is governed, and then governs the noun. In the gerundive form, the 
noun is governed, and then the gerundive agrees with it by R. II. In order to 
change from the gerund to the gerundive, it is necessary only to change the 
accusative of the noun, into the case of the gerund, and then make the 
gerundive agree with it; and from the gerundive to the gerund, change the 
noun into the accusative and the gerundive into the gerund, ia the same case 
as before. 

The following are examples to be changed, 
Gen. Consilia urbis delendce, civium trucidandorum, nominis Romani 

extinguendi. 
Dat. Perpetiendo labori idoneus; — Capessendce reipublicce habilis ; — 

Natus miserias ferendo ; — ad miserias ferendas ; — oneri fer- 

endo aptus. 
Ace. and Ab. Ad defendendam Romam ; Ab oppugnando Capuam ; 

ad collocandum signa ; In diripiendis castris. 

Obs. 7. Instead of the gerundive ia the genitive plural, to agree 
with a noun in that case, the gerund in the genitive singular is often 
retained, probably for the sake of Euphony ; as, Fuit exemplorum 
ehgendi pot est as. Cic. Facultas agrorum condonandi, instead of eli- 
gendorum condonandorum. Also, sometimes when the noun is singu- 
lar and feminine ; as, ejus (sc. fern.) videndi cupidus. Ter. 

Obs. 8. The gerunds of verbs, which do not govern the accusative 
are never changed into the gerundive, except those of medeor, utor, 
abutor , fruor , fungor y and potior ; as, Spes potiundiurbe, or potiunda 
urbis, but we always say Cupidus subveniendi tibi, and never tui 



§ 148 SYNTAX. SUPINES. 263 

$ 148. CONSTRUCTION OF SUPINES. 
1. The Supine in -um. 

Rule LXIII. The supine in um is put after a 

verb of motion; as, 

Abiit deambuldtum, He hath gone to walk 

So, Ductre cohortes pr&ddtum. Liv. Nunc venis irrisum dominum? 
Quod in rem tua/n optimum factu arbitror te id admonitum venio. 
Plaut. 

Obs. 1. The supine in um is elegantly joined with the verb eo, to 
express the signification of any verb more strongly j as, It se perditum, 
the same with id agit, or op cram dat, ut se per dot. He is bent on his 
own destruction. Ter. This supine with iri, taken impersonally sup- 
plies the place of the future infinitive passive ; as. An credebas it- 
lam sine tua opera iri deductum-domum ? Which may be thus resolved ; 
An credebas iri ( a te, or ab allquo) deductum (i. e. ad deducendum) 
illam domum. Ter. The supine here may be considered as a verbal 
substantive governing the accusative, like the gerund. 

Obs. 2. The supine in um is put after other verbs besides verbs of 
motion; as, Dedit filiam nuptum ; Cantdtum provocemus. Ter. Re- 
vocdtus defensum patriam ; Divisit copias hiemdtum. Nep. 

Obs. 3. The meaning of this supine may be expressed by several 
other parts of the verb ; as, Venit ordtum opem : or 1. Venit opem 
orandi causa, or opis orandce. 2. Venit ad orandum opem, or ad or an- 
dam opem. 

2. The Supine in -u. 

Rule LXIV. The supine in u is put after an 
adjective noun ; as, 

Facile dictu, Easy to tell, or to be told. 

So, Nihil dictu fce.dum, visuque, hcec limina tangat, intra quce puer 
est. Juv. Diffic'lis res est inventu verus amicus ; Fas est, or nefas est 
dictu; Opus est scitu. Cic. 

Obs. 4. The supine in u, being used in a passive sense, hardly ever 
governs any case. It is sometimes, especially in old writers, put af- 
ter verbs of motion ; as, Nunc obsondtu redeo, from getting provisions. 
Plaut. Primus cubltu surgat (villlcus,) poslremus cubitum eat. "Let 
the overseer be the first to rise, and the last to go to bed.'' Cato. 

Obs. 5. This supine may be rendered by the infinitive or gerund 
with the preposition ad; as, Difficile cognitu, cognosci, or ad cognos- 
cendum ; Res facilis ad credendum. Cic. 

Obs. 6. The supines being nothing else but verbal nouns of the 
fourth declension, used only in the accusative and ablative singular, 
are governed in these cases by prepositions understood ; the supine 
in um by the preposition ad, and the supine in uby the preposition in 



264 SYNTAX. CONJUNCTIONS. § 149 

* 149. CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

Rule LXV. The conjunctions et, ac, at que, nee, 
neque, aut, vel, and some others, couple similar cases 
and moods ; as, 

Honora patrem et matrem, Honor father and mother. 
Wee legit nee scribit, He neither reads nor writes. 

EXPLANATION. — Words coupled by a conjunction under this rule are in the 
same construction, i. e. two nominatives coupled together are the subject of 
the same verb, or predicates of the same subject ; and nouns coupled together 
in the oblique cases are governed by the same word, as in the first example* 
Verbs thus coupled have the same subject or nominative, as in the second ex 
ample. 

Obs. 1. The copulative conjunctions under this rule are such as et, 
ac, atque, etiam, que; the disjunctives nee, neque, aut, vel, seu, sive, 
ve, neve, nea; also guam, prater quam, nisi, an, nempe, quamvis.nec- 
dum, sed, autem, verum, and in general such connectives as do not im- 
ply a dependence of the following, on the preceding clause. 

Obs. 2. These conjunctions connect not only words hut also clauses 
whose construction is the same, i. e. whose subjects are in the same 
case, and their verbs in the same mood ; as, Concidunt venti, fu- 
giuntque nubes. 

Obs. 3. Words in the same construction are sometimes in a different 
case : Still they are coupled by the above conjunctions ; thus, Mea 
et reipublicse interest. Here, mea and reipublicce though in different 
cases are in the same construction by Rule XVIII. Exc. I. So, 
constitit asse et pluris, Rule XLIY. Vir magniingenii, summaque in- 
dustrid, Rule VII. &c. The subjunctive being often used for the im- 
perative is sometimes coupled with it ; as; Bisce nee invideas. 

Obs. 4. The indicative and subjunctive may be connected in this 
manner, if the latter does not depend on the former. 

Obs. 5. When two words coupled together have each a conjunction 
such as, et, aut, vel, sive, nee, &c. without being connected with a pre- 
ceding word the first et is rendered both or likewise ; the first aut or 
vel, by either • the first sive, by whether, and the first nee or neque by 

neither. So, also, turn turn, and cum turn, not only but 

also ; or both and. And so of others : as, nunc nunc ; jam, 

jam, &c. In such cases the conjunctive before the first word ren- 
ders it more emphatic: turn turn, often mean, " at one time at 

another time." 

Obs. 6 After words expressing similarity or dissimilarity, ac and 
atque signify u as;" and " than ;" as, Facis ac si me rogej, " You 
do as if you should ask me. 77 Me colit eeque atque pair onum suum, " He 
shews me as much attention as," he. Si aliter scribo ac sentio, " If I 
write otherwise than I think."' 

Obs. 7. Conjunctions that do not imply doubt and contingency; are 
usually joined with the indicative mood ; those which do imply doubt, 
contingency and dependence, are for the most part joined with the 
subjunctive. § 140. Obs. 1. 2. 3. 



§150 SYNTAX. — FIGURES. 265 

$ 150. FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

A Figure is a manner of speaking different from the regular 
and ordinary construction, used for the sake of heauty or force. 

The figures of Syntax or construction, may be reduced to four, El- 
lipsis, Pleonasm, Enallage, and Hyperbaton. Of these, them's*, and 
second, and third, respect the constituent parts of a sentence, the 
fourth respects only the arrangement of words. 

1. Ellipsis, is the omission of one or more words necessary 
to complete the sense ; as, 

Aiunt,ferunt,&c. sc. homines. Aber ant bidui, sc. iter, or itinere. 
Quid multa ? sc. dicam. Under this may be comprehended, 

1st. Asyndeton, or the omission of a conjunction ; as, veni, vidi, 
vici. Deus optimm, maximus, sc. et. 

2d. Zeugma is the uniting of two nouns or infinitives to a verb 
which is applicable only to one of them ; as, Pacem an helium 
gerens. Sail, where gerens is applicable to helium only. In 
this way, nego is sometimes used with two propositions, one of 
which is affirmative ; as, Negant Ccesarem mansurum, postu- 
lataquc interposita esse: i.e. dicuntque postuldta. 

3d. Syllepsis is when an adjective or a verb belonging to two or 
more nouns of different genders, persons, or numbers, agrees 
with one rather than another. See examples § 98. Obs. 2. 3. 

4th. Synechdoche is the use of an accusative of the part affected in- 
stead of an ablative ; as, Expleri mentem nequit. Virg. 
§ 128. Exc. 

2. Pleonasm, is using a greater number of words than is 
necessary to express the meaning \ as, 

Sic ore locuta est, tl thus she spoke with her mouthP Virg. Under 
this are included, 

1st. Polysyndeton, or a redundancy of conjunctions ; as, Una Eurus 
que Notusque ruunt. Virg. 

2d. Hendiadys, or the expression of an idea, by two nouns connect- 
ed by a conjunction, instead of a nounlimitedbyanadjective.or 
genitive; as, Pateris libamus et auro, "We offer a libation 
from cups and from gold," instead of pateris aureis, from 
golden cups. 

3d. Periphrasis or a circuitous mode of expression ; as, Teneri 
faztus ovium, " the tender young of the sheep/ 7 instead of ag- 
ni, lambs. 

3. Enallage, is a change of words, or a change of one 
gender, number, case, person, tense, mood, orvoice of the same 
word for another. It includes, 

1st. Antimeria or the using of one part of speech for another ; as, 
nost rum vivere, for nostra vita ; conjugium videbit, for conju 
gem, &c. 

23 



266 SYNTAX. — LATIN ARRANGEMENT. I ibl 

2d. Heterosis, or the using of one form of a noun, pronoun, or verb 
for another ; as, Romanus prazlio victor, for Romani vutores. 
Truncus me sustulerat, for sustulisset. Hor 

3d. Antiptosis, or the using of one case for another ; as cut nunc 
cognomen Iulo for lulus. Virg. § 97. Exc. .2. and 114. Obs. 
5. Uxor invicti Jovis esse nescis, for te esse uxorem. Hor. See 
§ 145. Obs. 3. 

4th. Syntsis or Synthesis, is adapting the construction to the sense of 
a word rather than to its gender or number ; as, Concursus popu- 
li mirantium; — Pars in crucemsLCti j — scelusqui. &c, § 88. Exc. 
Land §99. Exc. 1. 

5th. Anacoluthon, or a departure in the end of a sentence, from 
the construction with which it commenced. Thus, Nam nos 

omnes, quibus est alicunde aliquis objectus labos lucro 

est. Here the writer began as if he intended to say lucro ha- 
bemus, and ended as if he had said nobis omnibus. As it is, 
the nominative nos has no verb, and est, which in such sen- 
tences requires the dative of a person, is without it. 

4. Hyperbaton, is a transgression of the usual order of 
words or clauses. It includes, 

1st. Anastrophe, or an inversion of the order of two words ; as, 
Transtra per et remos, for per transtra, &c. ; — Collo dare bra- 
chia circum, for circumddre, &c. 
2d. HystZron prottron, or reversing the natural order of the sense j 
as, Moriamur et in media arma ruamus. Virg. Valet at que 
vivit, Ter. 
3d. Hypalldge or an interchange of constructions ; as, In nova fert 
animus mutatas dicere formas corpora, for corpora mutata in 
novas formas. Dare classibus Austros, for dare classes Austris. 
4th. Tmesis, or separating the parts of a compound word ; as, 
Septem subjecta trionigens, for Septentrioni. Virg. Qua> me 
canque vocant terrce for qucBCunque, &c. 
5th. Parenthesis, the insertion of a word or clause in a sentence 
which interrupts the natural connection j as, Tityre dum redeo 
(brevis est via,) pasce capellas. Virg. 
To these may be added, 

Archaism, which in Syntax means the use of ancient 
forms of construction i as, Operam abutttur^ for opera. Ter. 
Quid tibi hanc curatio est rem ? 

Hellenism or the use of Greek constructions ; as, Absti- 
neto irarum, for iris. Hor. Tempus desistere pugnce^ for 
pugnd. Virg. 



§ 151. LATIN ARRANGEMENT. 

In all languages, the arrangement of words in a sentence is different; 
and all, it is probable, consider the order of arrangement in their own 
language the most natural, being that to which they have themselves 



^ 151 SYNTAX. LATIN ARRANGEMENT. 267 

been most accustomed. In a language like the English, however, 
the words of which have but few changes of form or termination, 
much more depends on their position in a sentence than in those lan- 
guages which are able, by the changes of form only, to indicate 
the relation of words to each other, however they may be arranged. 
Thus when we say in English, li Alexander conquered Darius," if 
we change the order of the words we necessarily change the mean- 
ing also ; as, Darius conquered Alexander. But whether we say in 
Latin, Alexander vicit Darium, or Darium vicit Alexander, or Alex- 
ander Darium vicit, or Darium Alexander vicit, or place these words 
in any other possible order of arrangement, the meaning is the 
same and cannot be mistaken; because it depends, not on the 'po- 
sition, but on the form of the words. This gave the Latin writer 
much more scope to arrange his words in that order which would 
best promote the strength or euphony of the sentence, without en- 
dangering its perspicuity. Still even in Latin, custom has established 
a certain order of arrangement which is considered the best. And 
though no certain rules can be given on this subject, which are ap- 
plicable to every instance, the following general principles and Rules 
may be noticed. 

General principles of Latin Arrangement. 

1. The word governed is placed before the word which 
governs it. 

2. The word agreeing is placed after the word with which 
it agrees. More particularly, 

Rule I. The subject is generally put before the verb ; as, 
Deus ??iundum gubernat* 

Exc. 1. When the subject is closely connected with a clause fol- 
lowing the verb, it is placed after the verb ; as, eranl omnino duo iti- 
nera, quibus, &c. 

Exc. 2. When the subject is emphatic, it usually follows the verb 
and concludes the sentence. 

Rule II. The adjective or participle most commonly fol- 
lows the substantive with which it agrees. 

With few exceptions, however, the place of the adjective 
or participle is entirely arbitrary. The following usages may 
be noticed. 

1st. The adjectives primus, medius, ultimus, extremus, summus } in- 
fimus, imus, supremus, reliquus, cceterus, denoting the first part, 
Ihe middle part, &c. are generally put before the substantive ; 
as, summus mons: Extremo libro, the top of the mountain, &c. 

2d. When the substantive governs another in the genitive, the ad- 
jective generally precedes both ; as, Duo Platonis precepta. 

3d. When the substantive is governed by a preposition, the adjec- 
"V tive is frequently put before the substantive ; as, Hdc in 

questione ; magna in parte. 



268 SYNTAX. LATIN ARRANGEMENT. § 161 

4th. The adjective is often put before the substantive for the sake 
of Euphony. 
^ 5th. Is, ille, hie, iste, are generally placed before the substantive, 
and, if used substantively, are placed before the participle. 

Rule III. The relative is commonly placed after, and as 
near as possible to its antecedent. 

Obs. 1. The relative is commonly the first word of its own clause, 
and when it stands for et ille, et hie, et is, or for these pronouns with- 
out et. § 99. Obs. 8. it is always first. Sometimes, however, the 
relative and its clause precede the antecedent and its clause. 

Rule IV. The governing word is generally placed after 
the word governed ; as, Carthaginiensium dux — laudis avi- 
dus — Romanorum ditissimus — kostem fudit, &c. Hence, 

Obs. 2. The finite verb is commonly the last in its own clause. To 
this, however, there are many exceptions. 

Rule V. Adverbs are generally introduced before the 
word which they are intended to modify ; as, Levitcr cegro- 
tantes, leniter cur ant. Cic. 

Rule VI. Conjunctions generally introduce the clause to 
which they belong ; as, At si dares ; Sed profecto in omni 
re for tuna dominatur. 

\ Exc. 1. The enclitics que, ve, ne, are always annexed — the two first, 
to the latter of the two words which they serve to connect j as, Albus 
aterve. Cic. Boni malique;— and the last, to the subject which the 
question chiefly regards, thus, Loquarne? " Shall I speak?" Eg one 
loquar ? " Shall I speak?' ; 
^ Exc. 2. The conjunctions Autem. enim, vero, qvfiqae, quldem, are 
always placed after the introductory word of the clause generally in 
the second place, and sometimes in the third. Etiam, igitur, and 
tamen, more frequently in the second and third place than in the first. 

-. *. Rule VII. Words connected in sense, should be as close 
as possible to each other, and the words of one clause should 
never be mixed with those of another. 

Rule VIII. Circumstances, viz : the M cause," the " man- 
ner," the " instrument," the " time," the 4i place," &c. are 
put before the predicate ; as, 

Eumferro occidi; Ego te ob egregiam virtutem semper amavi. 

, Rule IX. The proper name should precede the name of 

v rank or profession ; as Cicero orator. 

Rule X. The Vocative should either introduce the sen- 
tence, or be placed among the first words ; as, Credo vos, 
judices. 



§ 152 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. 269 

V Rule XI. When there is an antithesis, the words chiefly 
opposed to each other should be as close together as possi- 
ble ; as, Appetis pecuniam, virtutem abjicis. 

Rule XII. Dependent clauses, as well as single w T ords, are 
placed before the principal finite verb upon which they chiefly 
depend. 

Ride XIII. As a general rule, where the case will admit, 
it is proper to proceed from shorter to longer words, and 
from shorter to longer clauses and members of a sentence, 
as we advance towards the close. 

Hence, it will follow, that a sentence should not conclude 
with a monosyllable, when it can be avoided. 

Remark. These, however, are to be considered as but general rules, subject 
to many modifications, and exceptions, according to the taste of different wri- 
ters. However, as a general guide, with elose attention to classical usage and 
euphony, they may be of use to enable the student to avoid errors on this sub* 
ject. 



$ 152. RESOLUTION OR ANALYSIS. 

Every simple sentence consists of two parts, the subject and the 
predicate, § 94. 6. 7. 8. In analyzing a sentence, it is necessary to 
distinguish between the Grammatical subject and predicate, and the 
Logical subject and predicate. 

The Grammatical subject is the name or thing spoken of, without, 
or separated from, all modifying words or clauses, and which stands 
as the nominative to the verb, or the accusative before the infinitive. 

The Logical subject is the same word in connection with the quali- 
fying or restricting expressions, which go to make up the full and 
precise idea of the thing spoken of. 

The Grammatical predicate is the word or words containing the 
simple affirmation, made respecting the subject. 

The Logical predicate is the grammatical predicate combined with 
all those words or expressions that modify or restrict it in any way; 
thus: 

In the sentence, u An inordinate desire of admiration often produc- 
es a contemptible levity of deportment;" the Grammatical subject is 
"desire;" the Logical " An inordinate desire of admiration." The 
Grammatical predicate is u produces," the Logical, " produces often 
a contemptible levity of deportment." 

In Latin and English, the general arrangement of a sentence is the 
same, i. e. the sentence commonly begins with the subject and ends 
w T ith the predicate. But the order of the words in each of these parts, 
is usually so different in Latin, from what it is in English, that one 
of the first difficulties a beginner has to encounter with a La- 
tin sentence, is to know how " to take it in/' or to arrange it in the 

23* 



270 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. § 152 

order of B the English. This is technically called construing or giving 
the order. To assist in this, some advantage may be found by care- 
fully attending to the following 

DIRECTIONS FOR BEGINNERS. 

Direct. 1. As all the other parts of a sentence depend 
upon the two leading parts, namely, the subject or NOMI- 
NATIVE, and the predicate or VERB \ the first thing to 
be done with every sentence, is to find out these. In order 
to this, 

First. Look for the leading verb, which is always in the 
present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, or future of the indi- 
cative, or in the imperative mood,* and usually at or near the 
end of the sentence. 

Second. Having found the verb, observe its number and 
person ; this will aid in finding its nominative, which is a 
noun or pronoun in the same number and person with the 
verb, commonly before it, and near the beginning of the sen- 
tence, though not always so, § 151. R. I. with exceptions. 

Direct. 2. Having thus found the nominative and verb, 
and ascertained their meaning, the sentence may be resolved 
from the Latin into the English order, as follows : 

1st. Take the Vocative, Exciting, Introductory r , or con- 
necting words, if there are any. 

2d. The NOMINATIVE. 

3d. Words limiting or explaining it, i.e. words agreeing 
with it, or governed by it, or by one another, where they are 
found, till you come to the verb. 

4th. The VERB. 

5th. Words limiting or explaining it, i. e. words which 
modify it, are governed by it, or depend upon it. 

6th. Supply everywhere the words understood. 

7th. If the sentence be compound, take the parts of it se- 
verally as they depend one upon another, proceeding with 
each of them as above. 

Direct. 3. In arranging the words for translation, in the 
subordinate parts of a sentence, observe the following 

* All the other parts of the verb are generally used in subordinate clauses. So, 
also, is the pluperfect indicative. In oblique discourse, the leading verb is in 
the infinitive, $ 141. Rule VI. 



§ 152 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. 271 

RULES FOR CONSTRUING. 

I. An oblique case, or the infinitive mood, is put after the 
word that governs it. 

Exc. The relative and interrogative are usually put before the 
governing word, unless that be a preposition; if it is, then after it. 

II. An adjective, if no other word depend upon it or be 
coupled with it, is put before its substantive ; but if ano- 
ther word depend upon it, or be governed by it, it is usu- 
ally placed after it. 

III. The participle is usually construed after its substan- 
tive, or the word with which it agrees. 

IV. The relative and its clause, should, if possible, come 
immediately after the antecedent. 

V. When a question is asked, the nominative comes after 
the verb; (in English between the auxiliary and the verb.) 
Interrogative words, however, such as quis, quotus, quantus, 
uter, &c. come before the verb. 

VI. After a transitive active verb look for an accusative, — 
and after a preposition, for an accusative or ablative, and ar- 
range the words accordingly. 

VII. Words in apposition must be construed as near to- 
gether as possible. 

VIII. Adverbs, adverbial phrases, prepositions with their 
cases, circumstances of time, place, cause, manner, instru- 
ment, &c. should be placed, in general, after the words which 
they modify. The case absolute commonly before them, and 
often first in the sentence. 

IX. The words of different clauses must not be mixed to- 
gether, but each clause translated by itself, in its order, ac- 
cording to its connection with, or dependence upon, those to 
which it is related. 

X. Conjunctions to be placed before the last of two words> 
or sentences connected. 

Examples of Resolution. 

First. Etenim omnesartes, quae ad humanitatem pertinent, 
habent quoddam commune vinculum, et quasi cognatione 
quadam inter se continentur. Cic. 

1. In looking over this sentence, according to Direction 1 
we find the first leading verb to be habent, which must have a 
plural nominative. This leads us at once to artes y as the no- 



272 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. § 152 

minative. The nominative and verb being thus found on 
which the other parts depend, then, 

2. By direction second, the general arrangement will be, 

1. Connective word, Etenim. 

2. NOMINATIVE, <**?&" 

3. Words limiting and explaining, omnes, quce ad huma- 

nitatem pertinent. 

4. The VERB, habent. 

5. Words governed by it, quoddam commune vinculum. 

3. Then by the rules in direction 3, the words in each of 
these divisions, will be arranged thus. 1. Etenim; 2. and 3. 
omnes artes, (R. II.) quce, (R. III.) pertinent ad humani- 
tatem, (R. VIII.) 4. habent, 5. quoddam commune vincu- 
lum, (R. II.) 

By proceeding in the same manner with the next clause, 
the whole will then stand thus ; 

Etenim omnes artes, quae pertinent ad humanitatem, ha- 
bent quoddam commune vinculum, et continentur inter se 
quasi quadam cognatione ; — and may be translated as follows : 

c< For all the arts which pertain to liberal knowledge, (ci- 
vilization,) have a certain common bond, and are connected 
together as if by a certain affinity between them." 

The pupil will now see, that in the first clause, or simple 
sentence, the Grammatical subject is artes; the Logical — omnes 
artes quce ad humanitatem pertinent. — The Grammatical pre- 
dicate is habent; the Logical — habent quoddam commune vin- 
culum; and so with the next clause. 

In like manner proceed with every new simple sentence, 
or with every succeeding clause of a compound sentence e 

Example Second. 

Justum et tenacem propositi virum 
Non civium ardor prava jubentium, 
Non vultus instantis tyranni 
Mente quatit solida. 

1. Here again, by Direction 1, we find the leading verb 
to be quatit) and its nominative ardor. 2. Then, as before, 

1. Connecting words — none. 

2. The NOMINATIVE, ardor. 

3. Limiting words, civium jubentium prava* 
2. A second NOMINATIVE, vultus. 



§ 153 SYNTAX. PARSING. 273 

3. Limiting words, instantis tyranni. 

4. VERB, quatit, 

5. Words modifying and governed by it, non — mente 
solida justum et tenacem propositi virum. 

3. By the rules in Direction third, then the order will stand 
thus. Ardor civium, (R. I.) jubentium, (R. III.) prava (se. 
negotia, R. I. and II.) Again, Vultus instantis tyranni, 
(R. I. and II.) non quatit solida mente, (R. VIII. and II.) 
virum, (R. I.) justum et tenacem, (R. II.) propositi, (R. I.) i. e. 

Ardor civium jubentium prava (negotia), vultus instantis 
tyranni, non quatit solida mente virum justum et tenacem 
propositi. 

§ 153. ETYMOLOGICAL AND SYNTACTICAL 
PARSING. 

Having arranged and translated a sentence, the next thing 
is to parse it, in doing which, every word should be fully de- 
scribed by its accidents, traced to its primitive, if a deriva- 
tive, — analyzed into its parts if compound, and its concord 
or government pointed out. The following scheme, with 
each part of speech, may be useful to the beginner. 

1. Noun. — 1. kind; 2. Gender; 3. Declension; 4. De- 
cline ; 5. Derived from (if derived ;) 6. it is found in 

Case; 7. Number; 8. is the nominative to (if the nominative) 
is governed by — (if governed) 9. Rule. 

2. Adjective. — 1. Declension; 2. Decline it; 3. com- 
pare it (if compared ;) 4. It is found in — Case ; 5. Number ; 
6. Gender ; 7. agrees with — 8. Rule. 

3. Pronoun. — 1. kind; (i. e. personal, relative, or adjec- 
tive,) 2. Decline it; then, 

If personal, 3. Person; 4. found in — Case; 5. Number; 
6. Reason of the case ; 7. Rule ; 8. stands for — 

If a Relative pronoun, 3. found in — Case ; 4. Number ; 
5. Reason of the case ; 6. Rule ; 7. Its antecedent ; 8. Rule, 

If an Adjective pronoun; then, 3. Kind, (i.e. possessive, 
indefinite, demonstrative, &c.) 4. It is found in — Case ; 5. 
Number ; 6. Gender ; 7. Agrees with ; 8. Rule. 

4. Verb. — 1. Kind, viz : Transitive, or Intransitive, (or 
if preferred, Active or Neuter,) 2. Conjugation, (or Irregu- 
lar, if it is so,) 3. Conjugate it ; 4. derived from, (if deriv 



274 SYNTAX. PARSING. § 153 

ed ;) 5. Compounded of — (if compounded,) 6. It is found in 
— Tense; 7. Mood; 8. Voice ; 9. Person ; lO.Number; 11. 
agrees with — as its subject; 12. Rule ; 13. give a Synopsis. 

5. Adverb. — 1. Derived from, (if derived,) 2. Compound- 
ed of, (if compounded,) 3. Compared, (if compared,) 4. It 
modifies ; 5. Rule. 

6. Preposition. — 1. Governs — —case; 2. Rule; 3. It 
points out the relation between and 

7. Interjection. — 1. Kind; 2. Governs, or is put with 
the case ; 3. Rule. 

8. Conjunction. — 1. Kind; — 2. Connects 3. Rule. 

Example of Parsing by the foregoing Scheme. 

The first of the above examples may serve as an example 
of Etymological and Syntactical parsing, and for this purpose 
we arrange it in the order of translation, as above, 

" Etenim omnes artes, quse pertinent ad humanitatem 
habent quoddam commune vinculum, et continentur inter se 
quasi quadam cognatione." 

Etenim, conjunction, casual, connecting the following sen- 
tence with the preceding, as containing the cause or reason 
of what is there stated. 

Omnes, An adjective, 3d decl. omnis, -is, -e, &c. not com- 
pared, because incapable of increase, — in the nom. pi. fern, 
and agrees with artes, (Rule,) " An adjective agrees," &c. 

Artes, A noun (or substantive,) fern. 3d (decl.) ars* artis, 
&c. — in the nom. pi. — the nom. to (or, subject of,) habent. 

Qua, Rel. pron. — in the nom. pi. fern. nom. to pertinent 
and agrees with its antecedent artes, Rule HI. 

Pertinent, Verb, intransitive (or neuter,) 2d (conj.) 
pertineo, -ere, -id, pertentum ; compounded of per, and 
teneo, — in the pres. ind. act. 3d. : pers.) pi. and agrees with 
qucR. Rule IV. "A verb agrees," &c. 

Ad, Preposition, governs the ace. shews the relation be- 
tween pertinent and humanitatem. 

Humanitatem, Noun, fern. 3d, humanitas, — aiis, &c# 
Abstract, derived from humanus. § 6. 2, 2, in the ace. sing. 

*As all nouns are common except proper nouns , to save time in parsing this 
may always be taken for granted, mentioning, however, when the noun is 
proper. For the same reason the words, u declension, " "gender," " number," 
i( conjugation," "mood," i( tense," may be omitted, these being sufficiently 
indicated by the words masculine, singular, indicative, &c. 



§ 153 SYNTAX. PARSING. 275 

governed by ad. Rule XL VIII. "Twenty- eight preposi- 
tions," &c. 

Habent, Verb transitive (or active) 2d. habeo, -ere, -u% 
-itum, — in the pres. ind. act. 3d pers. pi. — and agrees with 
artes. Rule IV. " A verb agrees," &c. Synopsis. 

Quoddam, indef. adj. pron. quidam, quadam, &c. com- 
pounded of quis and the syllable dam. — in the ace. sing, 
neut. and agrees with vinculum. Rule II. " An adjective 
agrees," &c. 

Vinculum, noun, neut. 2d. vinculum, -t, &c. — In the ace. 
sing, governed by habent. Rule XX. " A tr. verb signifying 
actively," &c. 

Et, a conjunction, copulative, connecting coritinentur with 
habent, which are consequently in the same construction, 
($ 149. Exp.) and have the same nominative artes. 

Continentur, A verb. Trans, (or active) 2d ; contineo, conti- 
nue, continui, contentum ; compounded of con and teneo. — 
in the pres. ind. pass. — 3d pers.— pi. and agrees with artes. 
Rule IV. " A verb agrees," &c. Synopsis. 

Inter, a preposition which governs the accusative, and here 
points out the relation of reciprocity between the individuals 
represented by se. (§ 28. Obs. 5.) 

Se 9 Substantive pron. 3d pers. — intheacc.pl. fern, governed 
by inter. Rule XL VIII. u Twenty-eight prepositions," &c. 
refers to artes, the subject of continentur^ and is here taken 
reciprocally. § 28. Obs. 5. 

Quasi, An adverb of manner modifying continentur* Rule, 

Quadam, Indef. adj. pron. quidam, qucedam, &c. com- 
pounded of quis and the syllable -dam — in the ablative sing, 
fern, and agrees with cognatione. Rule II. " An Adjective 
agrees," &c. 

Cognatione, A noun, fern. 3d (decl.) cognatio, -onis, &c. 
from cognatus "related by birth," (from con zridriascor) — in 
the ablative of manner, relating to continentur inter se. Rule. 

Note. — In this way by stating every thing respecting a word in 
the shortest possible manner, and without waiting to be questioned, 
parsing may be done rapidly, and much time saved ; and then such 
questions may be put as will draw attention to any thing not included 
in the above scheme. By a little attention on the part of the 
teacher in leading the pupil to understand and apply the preceding 
rules for arranging a sentence in the order of translation, he will 
save much time and labor to himself afterwards and accustom thf 
learner to the important lesson of reasoning out a difficult sentence 
and so by repeated victories to gain confidence in his own powers. 



276 PROSODY. QUANTITY. § 154-5 

PART FOURTH- 



prosody. 

Prosody in its common acceptation, treats of the quantity 
of syllables in the construction of verses ; in other words, of 
Quantity and Metre. 



§ 154. OF QUANTITY. 

Quantity means the relative length of time taken up in 
pronouncing a syllable. 

1. In respect of quantity every syllable is either long or short. 
When a syllable is sometimes long and sometimes short, it is 
said to be common* 

2. The quantity of syllables is determined by certain es- 
tablished rules; or when no rule applies, — by the authority 
of the poets. 

3. The rules of quantity are either general or special. 
The former apply alike to all the syllables of a word, the lat- 
ter to particular syllables. 



§ 155. GENERAL RULES. 

Rule I. A vowel before another vowel is short; as, 
Deus, alius, nihil. 

EXPLANATION. — This rule applies to a vowel before another 
vowel or diphthong in a different syllable, whether it be in the same, 
or in a different word. The letter h in verse, being considered as 
only a breathing, is wholly disregarded, hence such words as, nihil, mi' 
hi, ohe, &c. come under this rule. A diphthong before a vowel does 
not come under this rule, except as in Rule V. Exc. 1. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. A is long in a'er, Cai, auld'i, terrai, and the like 

2. E is long after i in the genitive and dative of the fifth declen- 

sion ; as, speciei; not after i, it is common. 
E is long in cheu, PompH. 



§ 155 PROSODY. QUANTITY. 277 

3. I not before er, is long in Jio; as, /io, fiebam. Also in aliut 

the genitive of alius. 
I is common in Diana, and genitives in ius ; but is short in */• 
terius. Genitives in -ius, in prose, have i long. 

4. is common in Ohe. 

5. Greek words vary. As a general rule when the vowel before 
another represents a long vowel or diphthong in the Greek word, it is 
long ; otherwise it is short. 

Rule II. A vowel before two (onsonants or a double con- 
sonant is long by position ; as, 

arma, fallo, azii>, gaza, major. 

EXPLANATION.— When a final syllable is long by another rule, 
this rule does not apply ; the double consonants under this rule are, 
the same consonant doubled ; as, 11, it, rr, &c. and the letters j. x 
and z, equivalent to dg, ks, ds. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. A short vowel in the end of a word before two consonants in 
the next is common : before sc, sp, sq, st, it is usually long ; before a 
double consonant it is short. 

2. A vowel before j, is short in compounds of jugum as bijugus. 
Rule III. A vowel before a mute and a liquid is common 5 

as voliicris, or volucris, 

EXPLANATION. — Under this rule the vowel must be naturally 
short, and the mute must come before the liquid, and be in the same 
syllable with it. But if the vowel be naturally long it remains so, 
as matris (from jifcfyryjp ) salubris, &c. If the mute and liquid 
be in different syllables, the vowel preceding is long by position ; 
as, abluo, dbruo. In Latin words the liquids are / and r only. In 
Greek words Z, r. m, n. 

Obs. 1. This rule is properly an exception to Ptule II. A short 
vowel in the end of a word is seldom affected by a mute and a liquid 
in the next. 

Rule IV. A contracted syllable is always long ; as, 

Nil j for nihil ; mi, for mihi ; alius, for aliius ; it for lit ; sodes for *t 

audes, nolo for non volo : bigce, for bijugce ; scilicet, for scire licet, &c. 

Rule V. A diphthong is long ; as, Ccssar, Aurum, EUbcsa. 

Exceptions 

1. Prce in composition, before a vowel, is commonly short; as 
prceire preeustus, &c. 

2. Also, (B is sometimes Short in the end of a word, when the next 
begins with a vowel; as, Insulce Ionio, he. 

Note. — U, after q and g, does not form a diphthong with a vowel 
following it, but has a force similar to the English w; as, lingua 
cueror, &.c. pronounced lingwa, kweror. § 1. Obs. 2. 

24 



878 PROSODY. QUANTITY. § 156-7 

SPECIAL RULES. 

§ 156. FIRST AND MIDDLE SYLLABLES. 

Rule VI. Preterites of two Syllables lengthen the former; 
as, veni, vidi, vici. 

Exc. 1. Those which are short by Rule I; as, ruij lui, &c. 

Exc. 2. Seven have the first syllable short; viz: bibi, dtdi,fidi, 
(from findo,) scidi, steti, stiti, and tiili. 

Rule VII. Preterites which double the first syllable, short- 
en the first and second 5 as, Cecidi, tetigi, pepuli, &c. from 
cado, tango, pello. 

Exc. CZcidi, from cado; and pepedi, have the second long. 

Rule VIII. Supines of two syllables lengthen the former; 
as, Cdsum, motum, visum, from cado, moveo, video. 

Exc. Ten have the first syllable short, viz: citum, (from cito,) 
datum, itum, lltum, — quitum, ratum rutum.satum, — situm. and statum. 

Rule IX. In polysyllables, a, e, and u, are long before 
'turn, of the Supine ; as, Amdtum, delUum, indutum. 

Rule X. In polysyllables, i is short before turn of the 
Supine; as, monitum. J is long in divisum. 

Exc. But Supines in itum, from preterites in ivi, have i 
long ; as, Cupivi, cupitum, audivi, auditum, &c. 

Obs. Rtcenseo has recensitum, from ui in the preterite, because ori- 
ginally from censio, censivi. Eo and its compounds have i short; as, 
itum, ambitum, &c. 

Rule XL Participles in -rus, have u long in the penult ; 
as, amatUrus, &c. 






§ 157. INCREMENT OF NOUNS. 

1. A noun is said to increase, when any of its cases has more sylla- 
bles than the nominative singular ; as, rex, regis; sermo, sermonis. 

2. With only few exceptions, nouns have but one increase in the 
singular number : iter, supellex, and compounds of caput in ps, have 
two; as, itintris, supellectilis, prcecipitis , from preeceps. 

3 The increment or increasing syllable, to which the following 
rules apply, is never the last syllable, but the one preceding it, if 
there be one increment; or the two preceding it, if there be two, &c. 



§ 157 PROSODY. QUANTITY. 279 

4. The rules for the increase of nouns, apply to adjectives and 
participles. 

5. Nouns of the fourth declension have no increment in the singu- 
lar; those of the first and fifth, have none but what come under Rule 
I. and its exceptions. In the second declension, those only increase 
in the singular which end in r, according to the following, 

Rule. The increment of the second declension is short ; as, 

Putri, viri, saturi, &c. from puer, vir, satur. 
Exc. But Iber and Celtiber, have Iberi and Celtiberi, 

INCREMENTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

Rule. XII. Increments of the third declension in a and o 
are long ; e, i, and u, short ; as, 

Pietatis, honoris, muligris, lapidis, murmUris. 

Rules ivith Exceptions 

A. 

1. Increments in a, of the third declension, are long. 

Exc. 1st. The increment in a, from Masculines in al and ar is short, 
also from par, and its compounds; — from anas, mas, vas } 
(vadis) baccar. hepar, jubar, lar, nectar, and sal. 

Exc. 2d. The increment in a, from nouns in s, with a consonant be- 
fore it, is short; as, Arabs, Arabis. 

Exc. 3d. The increment in a, from Greek nouns in -a, -at is; and 
as, -adis, is short; as, poema, poematis; lampas, lampadis. 

Exc. 4th. Also the following in ax, viz : abax y anthrax, Atax, 
Atrax, climax, colax, corax,dropax,fax, harpax,panax, 
phylax, smilax, and styrax, increase with a short. 

o. 

2. Increments in o, of the third declension are long. 

Exc. 1st. The increment in o, from neuter nouns is short; as, 
marmor, marmoris; corpus, corporis. But os, oris, and 
neuter comparatives increase in 6 long, Ardor has ardd- 
ris, or ardoris. 

Exc. 2d. The increment in o, from nouns in s with a consonant be- 
fore it is short; as, scrobs, scrdbis; inops, inopis. But 
Cecrops, Cyclops, and Hydrops, have 6 long. 

Exc. 3d. Generally from Gentile and Greek nouns in o, and on, 
the increment is short; as, Macedo, Macedonis: but some 
are long, and some are common. 



280 PROSODY. QUANTITY. § 157 

Exc. 4th. Greek nouns in tor, shorten the increment; as, Hector — 

8m, 
Exc. 5th. Greek nouns in pus, (rfovg) $ as, tripus, Polypus; also, 

arbor, memor, bos, compos, impos, and lepus, have short 

in the increment. 

E. 

3. Increments in e, of the third declension, are short. 
Exc. 1st. The increment in -enis from en and is long; as, Siren, 

Sirenis; Anio, Anienis. 
Exc. 2d. The increment in e is long from hceres, locuples, mansues, 

merces, and quies. Also from Iber and ver — from lex y rex 

and vervex — plebs, seps, and halec. 
Exc. 3d. Greek nouns in er and es increase e long; as, Crater, era* 

teris; magnes, magnetis. 

I. 

4. Increments in i, of the third declension are short. 

Exc. 1st. Verbals in trix, and adjectives in ix have i long; as, vie* 
trix, victricis; felix,felicis. 

Also cervix, cicatrix, comix, coturnix, lodix, matrix, per' 
dix, phcenix, radix, and vibex. 

Exc. 2d. Greek nouns in is and in, with the genitive in -inis, in- 
crease long; as, Salamis, Salaminis. 

Exc. 3d. Dis, glis, and lis, with Nesis, Quiris, and Samnis, increase 
long. 

u. 

5. Increments in u, of the third declension, are short. 

Exc. 1st. Genitives in udis, uris, and uiis, from nominatives in us, 
have the increase long; as, palus, paludis, &c. But Li* 
gus, intercus, and pecus, increase with u short. 

Exc. 2d. Fur,frux, lux, and Pollux, have u long. 

Y. 

6. Increments in y are short. 

JEjcc. Greek nouns with the genitive in ynis, have the increase long. 
Also Bombyx, Ceyx, and gryps, which increase long. 

INCREMENTS OF THE PLURAL NUMBER. 

A noun in the plural number, is said to increase when it has more 
syllables in any case, than in the nominative plural. 

An increment in the plural, can occur only in the genitive, dative, 
and ablative, and in these, it is the syllable next to the last. When 
any of these cases has no more syllables than the nominative, it has 






§ 158 PROSODY. QUANTITY. 281 

no plural increment. Thus, Sermonum, putris, capitum, have no plu- 
ral increase ; because they have no more syllables than sermones, pu- 
£ri, capita; still, they all have the increment of the singular, because 
they have more syllables than sermo, puer, and caput. But sermonU 
bus, puerorum, and capitibus, have both the singular and plural in- 
crement. 

Rule XIII. Plural increments in a, e, and 0, are long — in 
i 9 and u, short; as, 

Musarum, re rum, virorum, partibus, lacubus. 
from Musce, res, viri, partes. lacus. 



EXPLANATION. — All the increments of the singular remain in 
the plural, and to these the plural increment is added. The rule here 
given applies to the plural increments only, and not to the increments 
of the singular in the plural. Thus, in itine'ribus from iter, the se- 
cond and third syllables are increments of the singular, to be found 
in itintris; the fourth is the plural increment, which comes under 
this rule. 



§ 158. INCREMENT OF VERBS. 

A verb is said to increase when it has more syllables in any part, 
than in the second person singular, of the present indicative, active 
voice; as, amas, amatis, amabatis, &c. — A verb in the active voice 
may have three increments, and in the passive four. If there is but 
one increment, it is the syllable next the last. If there is two, the se- 
cond increment is the syllable next the last, and the first the syllable 
preceding that, &c. thus. 

1 12 12 3 

a-mas, — am-a-mus, — am-a-ba-mus, — am-av-er-a-mus, &c 

The increments of deponent verbs, are determined in the same 
manner as if they had an active form. 

Rule XIV. In the increase of verbs, a, e, ando, are long; 
i, and u short; as, 

Amaremus , amatote; legimus, possUmus. 

* 

Exceptions in A. 

1. The first increment of do is short; as, damus, ddbamus y d&rimui, 
&c 

Exceptions in E. 

2. E is short before ram, rim and ro. 

But when contracted by syncope it is long ; as, fltram for Jtfft 
ram 

24* 



282 PROSODY. QUANTITY. § 159 

3. In the third conjugation e is short before r in the first 
increase of the present and imperfect ; as, 

LegZre, leggrem, Act. legZreris, leg&rere, leggre, Pass. 

4. In the first and second conjugation e is short in — beris 
and — here. 

Note — erunt and -ere in the perfect come under the general rule ; 
sometimes they are shortened. § 166. 5. 

Exceptions in I. 

5. In preterite tenses i is long before v; as, 
Audivi, audiveram, audiverim, &c. 

6. In the first increase of the fourth conjugation, except 
-imus of the perfect, i not before a vowel is always long ; as, 

Pres. venimus; Perf. venimus. So, also, ibam, and ibo, from eo. 

7. I is long in simus, sitis, velimus, velttis; and their com- 
pounds; as, posstmus, noltmus, &c. 

8. In rimus^nd ritis of the Future perfect indicative and 
perfect subjunctive, i is common 5 as, 

Dix&rimus, or dix8rimus; videritis, or videritis. 

Note. — {/long before turn of the supine comes under Rule VIII. 
and IX. It is also long in the penult of ihe perfect participle by the 
same rules as the perfect participle is always derived from the supine. 



$ 159. QUANTITY OF PENULT SYLLABLES. 

For the quantity of penult syllables no definite rule can be given 
which is not rendered nearly useless by the number of exceptions oc- 
curring under it. The following observations are usually given rather 
as a general guide, than certain rules, and they might be easily ex- 
tended were it of any practical advantage. 

1. Patronymics in IDES or ADES usually shorten the 
penult; as, 

Priamides, Atlantiades, &c. Unless they come from nouns in ens; 
as, P elides, Tydides, &c. 

2. Patronymics, and similar words, in AIS, EIS, ITIS, 
OIS, OTIS, INE, and ONE commonly lengthen the pe- 
nult ; as, 

j&chaisj Ptolem&is, Chryseis, JEneis, Memphitis, Latdis, Icariotis 



§ 159 PROSODY. QUANTITY. 283 

Nerine, Acrisione. Except Thcbais, and Phocdis short ; and Nereis t 
which is common. 

3. Adjectives in ACUS, ICUS, IDUS, and IMUS, for 

the most part shorten the penult ; as, 

Mgxjptiacus, acadcmicus, lepidus, legitimus: also superlatives; as, 
fortissimus , &c. Except opticus, amicus, apricus, pudicus, mendicus, 
antic us, posticus, fidus, infidus, (but perfidus, of per and fides, is 
short,) bimus, quadrimus, patrimus, matrimus, opimus ; and the two 
superlatives, imus, and primus. 

4. Adjectives in ALIS, ANUS, ARUS, IVUS, ORUS, 
OSUS, lengthen the penult ; as, 

Dotalis, urbanus, avarus, cestivus, decorus, arcnosus. Except bar* 
barns, opiparus. 

5. Verbal adjectives inlLIS shorten the penult ; as, agilis^ 
fadlis, &e. But derivatives from nouns usually lengthen 
it ] as. 

Anilis, civilis, herilis, &c. To these add, exilis, subtilis ; and 
names of months, Aprilis, Quinctilis, Sextilis : Except humilis, pari- 
lis -, and also similis. But all adjectives in atilis are short ; as, 
versattlis, volatilis, umbratilis, plic atilis , fluviaiilis • saxaiilis, &c. 

6. Adjectives in INUS, derived from words denoting 
inanimate things, as plants, stones, &c. also from adverbs of 
time, commonly shorten the penult ; as, 

Amaracinus, crocinus, cedrinus, faginus, oleaginus ; adamantinus, 
crystallinus, crastinus, pristinus, perendinus. carinus, annotinus, &c. 

Other adjectives in INUS are long ; as, 

Agninus, caninus, leporinus binus, trinus quinus, austrinus. clan 
destinus, Latinus, marinus, supinus, vespertinus, &c. 

7. Diminutives in OLUS, OLA, OLUM ; and ULUS, 
ULA, ULUM, always shorten the penult; as, 

UrcedluSj filiola, musceolum ; lectulus, ratiuncula, corculum. &c. 

8. Adverbs in TIM lengthen the penult ; as, 
Oppidtitim, viritim,tributim. Except affatim, perpetim, and statim. 

9. Desideratives in URIO shorten the antepenult, which 
in the second and third person is the penult ; as, 

Esurio, esuris, esurit. But other verbs in urio lengthen that sylla 
ble ; as, ligurio. liguris ; scaturio, scaturis, &c. 



284 PROSODY.— QUANTITY. § 159 

PENULT OF PROPER NAMES. 

The following proper names lengthen the penult : Abdera, Abydus, 
Adonis, iEsopus, iEtolus, Ahala, Alaricus, Alcldes, Amyclae, Andro- 
nicus, Anubis, Archimedes, Ariarathes, Ariobarzanes, Aristldes, 
Aristobulus, Aristoglton, Arpinum, Artabanus : Brachmanes, Busi- 
ris, Buthrotus ; Cethegus, Chalcedon, Cleobulus, Cyrene, Cythcra, 
Curetes ; Darici, Demonicus, Diomedes, Di'res, Dioscuri ; Ebudes, 
Briphyle, Eubulus, Euclides, Euphrates, Eumedes, EurTpus, EuxTnus, 
Garganus, Gaetiilus, GranTcus : Heliogabalus, Henncus, Heraclides, 
HeracEtus, Hipponax, Hispanus • Irene ; Lacydas, Latona, Leucata, 
Lugdunum, Lycoras ; Mandane, Mausolus, Maximlnus, Meleager, 
Messala, Messana. Miletus ; Nas:ca, Nic nor, Nicetas ; Pachy. 
nus, Pandora, Peioris «§• -us, Pharsalus, Phoesrce, Pol tes, Poly- 
cletus, Polynices, Priapus, Sardanapalus, Sarprdon, Ser'pis, Sinope, 
Stratonice, SufFetes ; Tigranes, Thessalon T ca ; Verona, Veronica. 

The following are short : Amathus, Amphipolis, Anabasis, Anti- 
eyra, Antigonus, Sf -ne, Antilochus, Antiochus, Antiopa, Antlpas, 
Antipater, Antiphanes, Antiphates, Antiphlla, Antiphon, Anytus, 
Apulus, Areopagus, Arimlnum, Armenus, Athesis, Attalus, Attica ; 
Biturix, Bructeri ; Calaber, Callicrates, Callistratus. Candace, Can- 
taber, Carneades, Cherllus, Chrysostcmus, Cleombrotus, Cleomenes, 
Corycos, Constantinopolis, Craterus, Cratylus, Cremera, Crustumeri, 
Cybele, Cyclades, Cyzlcus ; Dalmatse, Damocles, Dardanus, Dej6ces, 
Dejotarus, Democritus, Demlpho, Didymus, Diogenes, Drepanum, 
Dumnorix ; Empedccles, Ephesus, E^vergetes, Eumenes, Eurymedcn, 
Euripylus ; Fucinus ; Geryones, Gyarus ; Hecyra, Helipolis, Hermi- 
one, Herodotus, Hesiodus, Hesione, Hippocrates, Hippotamos, 
Hypata, Hypanis ; Icarus, Icetas, Illyris, Iphitus, Ismarus, Itha- 
ca • Laodlce, Laomedon, Lampsacus, Lamyrus, Lapithae, Lucre- 
tilis, Libanus, Lipare or -a, Lysimacbus, Longimanus : Marathon, 
Msenalus, Marmarlca, Massagetae, Matrona, Megara, Melltus <§- -ta, 
Metropolis, Mutlna, Miconus ; Neocles, Neiitos, Norlcum ; Omphale; 
Patara, Pegasus, Pharnaces, Pisistratus, Polydamus; Polyxena, Por- 
sena or Porsenna, Praxiteles, Pute^li, Pylades, Pythagoras ; Sarma- 
tse, Sarsina, Semele, Semiramis, Sequani §-&, Sisyphus, Sic^ris, Socra- 
tes, Sodoma, Sotades, Spartacus, Sporades, Strongyle, St) r mphaius, 
Sybaris; Taygetus, Telegonus, Telemachus, Tenedos. Tarraco, Theo- 
phanes, Theophllus, Tomyris ; Urbicus ; Veneti, Vologesus, Volusus ; 
Xencrates • Zoilus, Zopyrus. 

The penult of several words is doubtful ; thus, Batavi. Lucan. 
Batavi. Juv. & Mart. Fortultus. Hor. Fortuitas. Martial. Some make 
fortuitus of three syllables, but it may be shortened like gratuitus. 
Stat. Patrimus, matrimus, prcestolor, &c. are by some lengthened, 
and by some shortened j but for their quantity there is no certain au- 
thority. 



$ 160. FINAL SYLLABLES. 

A final. 

Rule XV. A in the end of a word declined by cases is 
short 5 as, Musa, templd, &c. 



§ 160 prosody. — quantity. 285 

Exc. 1. The ablative of the first declension is long ; as, Musa, &c. 
Exc. 2. The vocative of Greek nouns in as is long ; as, O JEnea, 
Pallet. 

Rule XVI. A in the end of a word not declined by cases 
is long; as, Amd, frustrd, erga, intra, &c. 

Exc. ltd, quia, ejd, posted, puta* (adv.) are short ,• Sometimes 
also the prepositions contra, and ultra; and the compounds of 
-ginta as trigintd, &c. But contra and ultra, as adverbs, are al- 
ways long. 

E final. 

Rule XVII. E in the end of a word is short ; as, Nate^ 
sedile, ipse, posse, nempe, ante. 

Special Rules and Exceptions. 

Rule 1. Monosyllables in e are long; as, me, te, si* 

Exc. The enclitics quZ, vZ, n£, are short ; also pt 2, c£, it. 

Rule 2. Nouns of the first and fifth declension have final 
e long ; as, Calliope, Anckise, die, &c. 

Also Greek neuter plurals ; as, Cete, mele, Tempi, &c. 

Rule 3. Verbs of the second conjugation have e long 
in the second person singular of the imperative active ; as, 
Doce~, mane, &c. But cave, vale, and vide are sometimes 
short. 

Rule 4. Adverbs from adjectives of the first and se- 
cond declension have final e long ; as, placide, pulchre, valde, 
(contracted for valide.) So also/errae, fere, and ohe. 

Exc. But ben8, maU, inferng, and supernZ are short. 

I final. 

Rule XVIII. /final is long ; as, domtnl, fill, &c. 

Exc. 1. I final is common in mihi, tibi, sibi ; also in ibi, ubi, 
nisi, quasi. Sometimes uti and cut as a dissyllable have i short. 
Sicuti, sicubi, and necubi are always short. 

Exc. 2. /final is short in Greek vocatives and datives ; as, Alexi % 
Daphni j Palladi, Troasi, and Troasin. 

O final 
Rule XIX. O final is common ; as, Virgo, amo, quando. 
Exc. 1. Monosyllables in o are long ; as, O, do, sto, pro. 



286 PROSODY*— QUANTITY. § 160 

Exc. 2. The dative and ablative in o are long 5 as 5 lib? o f 
domind. Also Greek nouns in o ; as, Didd, Sappho. 

Exc. 3. Ablatives used as adverbs have long ; as, certo, fateo, 
paulb y qud) eo, and their compounds: illo, idcirco, citro, retro , 
ultrdy ergo, (for the sake of.) 

Exc. 4. Ego , scio, the defective verb cedo; also hom6 i did, illicd. 
immo, duo, ambb, modo, and its compounds quomodo, du7nm6d5 s 
postmodo, are almost always short. 

Exc, 5. The gerund in do is long in Virgil, in other poets mostly 
short. 

U and Y, final. 

Rule XX. U final is long 5 Y final is short, as vultU, Moly. 

B, D ? L, M, R, T, final, 
Rule XXI. B, D, L, R and T, in the end of a word are 
short 5 as, db, apud, se?nel, consul, pate?', caput. 

EXPLANATION.— This rule does not apply, if any of these final 
letters are preceded by a diphthong, or if the syllable is contracted, 
dr made long by position ; as, aut, ablt for abiit, amdnt 

Exc. 1. Sal, sol, and nil are long. 

Exc. 2. Aer, & cether, are long. Also nouns in er which have 
"iris in the genitive ,• as, Crater, Iber, &c. 

Exc. 3. Far, lar, Nar, par, cur, and fur, are long. 

Exc. 4. The Hebrew names Job, Daniel, are long j but David and 
Bogud are common. 

Obs. M final anciently made the preceding vowel short, as Mxlitum 
octo. By later poets it is usually cut off, by Echthlipsis, (§ 166. 2.) 
when the next word begins with a vowel. When not so cut off, it is 
short. 

C, N, final. 

Rule XXII. C and N in the end of a word are long 5 as, 
ac, stCyilluc, en, no?i, &c. 

Exc. 1. Nee and donee are short; hie and/ac, common. 

Exc. 2. Forsitdn, in, for s an, tamen, an, viden, are short. 

Exc. 3. En having -inis in the genitive is short j as, carman, car* 

minis. Also Greek nouns in an, on ) in, yn, originally short, and 

the dative plural in sin have the final syllable short ; as, Ilidn, Era- 

tion, Maian, Alexin, chelyn,, Troasin, &c. 

As, Es, Os, final. 

Rule XXIII. As, Es, Os, in the end of a word are long 5 
as, Mas, quits, bonds 



§ 161 



PROSODY. QUANTITY. 



287 



Exc. 1. As is short in anas and Greek nouns which have -adis or 
-ados in the genitive j as, Areas, lampds, &c. 

Exc. 2. Es is short, 1st in nouns and adjectives which increase 
short in the genitive ; as, hospes, lime's, heb£s. But Ceres, paries, 
aries, abies, and pes, with its compounds are long. 2d. Es from 
sum, and pen£s are short. 3d. Greek neuters in es, and nominatives 
and vocatives of the third declension which increase in the genitive 
otherwise than in eos, have es short ; as, ArcadZs, Tro&s, &c. 

Exc. 3. Os is short in compos, impos, 6s, (ossis,) — in Greek 
words of the second declension, and in neuters and genitives of the 
third ,• as, llios, Tyros, chaos, epos, Pallados, &c. 

Is, Us, Ys, final. 

Rule XXIV. Is, us and ys, in the end of a word are short \ 
as, Turrts, legzs, legimus, Capys. 

Exc. 1. Plural cases in 25 and us are long; but the dative 
and ablative in bus are short. 

Exc. 2. Nouns in is with the genitive in Itis, inis, or entis are 
long -, as Samnis, Sal amis, Simols. 

Exc. 3. Is is long in glis, vis, gratis, foris. And in the second 
Pers. Sing. Pres. Ind. Active of the fourth conjugation as audis. 
Also in fis, is, sis, vis, veils, and their compounds possis, quamvls f% 
malls, noils, &c. 

Exc. 4. Monosyllables in -us are long ; as, grus, sus. &c. 

Also those which have uris, udis, litis, untis, or bdis, in the geni- 
tive ; as, telius, incus, virtus, Amathus, tripus. To these add 
Greek genitives in us • as, Didus, Sapphus, S.c. 

Exc. 5. Tethys is sometimes long, likewise nouns in ys, which 
have also yn in the nominative; as, Phorcys or Phorcyn. 



$ 161 QUANTITY OF DERIVATIVES AND COM- 
POUNDS. 
Rule XXV. Derivatives follow the quantity of their 
primitives ; as, 



Amxus, 

Auctnnor, 

Auctoro, 

Auditor, 

Auspicor, 

Cauponor, 

Competitor, 

Cornicor, 

Custodio, 

Decorus, 



from amo. 

auctio, -onis. 
auctor, -oris. 
audi turn, 
auspex, -icis. 
caupo, -onis. 
competitum. 
comix, -icis. 
custos, -odis. 
decor, -oris. 



Decoro, 

Exulo, 

Pavidus 

Quirlto, 

Radlcitus, 

Sosplto, 

Natura, 

Maternus, 

Legebam, SfC. 

Legeram, fyc. 



from decus, -oris, 
exul, -ulis. 
paveo, 
Quiris, -itis. 
radix, -icis. 
sospes, -itis. 
natus. 
mater, 
lego, 
legi. 



288 PROSODY. QUANTITY. § 161 

EXCEPTIONS 

1. Long from Short. 

Deni, from decern. Susplcio, from susplcor. Mobllis, from moveo. 
FomeSj. foveo. Sedes, sedeo. Humor, humus. 

Humanus, homo. Secius, secus. Junientum, juvo. 

Hegula, rego. Penuria. penus. Vox, vceis, voco, fyc 

2. Short f Worn Long. 

Arena and arista, from areo. Lucerna, from luceo. 

$ofa andnoto, n5tus. Dux, -ucis, duco. 

"Vadum, vado. Stabllis, stibam. 

Fides. fido. Dltio, dis, ditis, 

Sopor, sopio. Quasillus, qualus, <§rc 

EXPLANATION. — This rule applies to all those parts of the 
verb derived or formed from the primary parts, § 51, and 52, i. e. 
the quantity of the primary part remains in all the parts formed 
from it, 

Ktjle XX VI. Compounds follow the quantity of the sim- 
ple words which compose them 5 as, 

jldamo, from ad and amo ; deduco, from de and duco. 

Obs. 1, The change of a vowel or diphthong, iu forming the com- 
pound,- does not alter its quantity ,• as, cado, concldo; ccedo } concldo; 
claudo, recludo; cequus, imquus. &c. 

Obs. 2. When a short syllable in the first part of the compound 
ends with a consonant, it becomes long by position when joined to 
another word beginning with a consonant : as, permaneo from per 
and maneo ; but if the second word begin with a vowel, the first re- 
tains its quantity ; as, vtrambulo, from phr and carlido. 

Obs. 3. When the second part of a compound word begins with a 
vowel, the vowel ending the first part is short by Rule I. When it 
begins with two consonants or a double consonant, the vowel pre- 
ceding is long by Rule II. But if it begins with a simple consonant 
followed by a vowel or diphthong, the vowel preceding is sometimes 
long, and sometimes short by the following 

Special Rules for the first part of a compound, end- 
ing with a vowel. 
Rule I. The first part of a compound, if a preposition 
of one syllable, has the final vowel long ; as, decido, prd- 
tendo. 

Exc. 1. Pro is short in pro cell a, profanus, pro fari , pro feet 0, pro- 
festus, prdficiscor, profiteor, profugio, profugm, profundus^ prone- 
posy prftneptis, propero, and protervus. It is common in procuro, 
profunda , propdgo, propello, propino, propulso. 



§ 161 PROSODY. QUANTITY. 289 

Exc. 2. The Greek pro (before,) is always short; as, propheta, 
prologus. 

Note. — The final vowel of a preposition of more than one syllable, 
retains its own quantity ; as, contrddico, ant£cedo. 

Rule 2. The inseparable prepositions se and di are long; 
re short ; as, Sepono, dlvello, repello. 

Exc. 3. Di is short in dtrimo and dtsertus. Re is long 
in rvfert. 

Rule 3. The first part of a compound, not a preposition, 
has final a long ; e, 2, o, u, and y short $ as, 

Mdlo, nZfas, biceps, philosophy^, ducenti, Polydorus. 

Exc. 1. A. In quasi, eadem, not in the ablative, and in some Greek 
compounds, a is short. 

Exc. 2. E. The e is long in nemo, nequam, nequando, nequaquam, 
nequidquam, nequis, nequitia; memet, me cum, tecum, secum, vecors, 
vesanus, veneficus. Also in words compounded with se for sex, or 
semi; as, sedecim. semestris, &c. E is common in some compounds 
of fa cio; as , liquefacio , patefacio, rarefacio, &c. 

Exc. 3. I. When the first part of a compound is declined, i is long; 
as, quidam, qullibet, reipublicce, &c. or when the first can be separat- 
ed from tne last, and yet both retain their form and meaning; as, lu- 
di-magister , lucrl-facio, si-quis, agri-cultura, &c. 

I is sometimes made long by contraction; as, bigce, scilicet, blmus. 
&c. for bljugce, scire licet, bis annus, or biennius, It is also long in 
idem, (masculine) ubique, utroblque, ibidem, nlmirum, and the com- 
pounds of dies, such as, blduum, prldie; merldies, &c. In ubicunque 
and ubivis, it is common. 

Exc. 4. O. Contro, intro, retro, and quando, in compounds have 
the final o long; as, controversia, introduco, retrocedo, quandoque, 
(except quando quidem.) 

O is long in compounds of quo; as, quomodo, quocunque, quomlnus, 
quocirca, quovis, quoque, (from quisque;) but in qubque, the conjunction, 
it is short. 

Exc. 5. U. Jupiter, judex, and judicium have u long; also usuca» 
pio, and usuvenio, being capable of separation as in Exc. 3. 

Rule XXVIL The last syllable of every verse is common. 

EXPLANATION.— This means that a short syllable at the end of 
a line, if the verse requires it, is considered long; and a long sylla- 
ble, if the verse requires it, is considered short. 

N. B. A syllable which does not come under any of the 
preceding rules, is said to be long, or short, by " authority," 
viz : of the poets. 

25 



290 



PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. 



§ 162 



§ 162. VERSIFICATION. 

A verse is a certain number of long and short syllables, disposed 

according to rule. The parts into which a verse is divided are called 

Feet. 

OF FEET. 

A foot in metre, is composed of two or more syllables, strictly re- 
gulated by time, and is either simple or compound. The simple feet 
are twelve in number, of which four consist of two, and eight of 
three syllables. There are sixteen compound feet, each of four syl- 
lables. These varieties are as follows* 

Simple feet of two Syllables. 



Pyrrhic 


>■• vw' 


as Be us. 


Spondee 







as fuudunt. 


Iambus 


V — 


as arma. 


Trochee 




— W 


as erant. 


Simple feet of three Syllables. 


Tribrach 




*mS V*^ >»• 


as facere. 


Molossus 




^ 


as contendunt. 


Dactyl 




*"" 1 v-x 'w 


as corpora. 


Anapaest 




*«• N-^ 


as domini, 


Baechius 




N— ' "~^ ~"~ 


as dolares. 


Antibacchius 


— — — \^s 


as Romanos. 


Amphibrach 


W ~ ""* v^ 


as honore, 


Amphimacer 


>»• 


as charltas. 


Compound feet 


of four 


Syllables. 


Chor iambus 


"""" %-• ^-S 


pontlflces 


Trochee and Iambus. 


Antispastus 


V-' ~ ~~ N-^ 


am abatis 


Iambus and Trochee 


Ionic a majore 


*~ N—^ >*• 


calcarlbus 


Spondee and Pyrrhic. 


Ionic a minore 


V-' V_^ ~~~~ 


propera bant Pyrrhic and Spondee. 


First Paeon 


V-^ V-^ V 


temporibus 


Trochee and Pyrrhic. 


Second Paeon 


\S N_^ S_^ 


potentla 


Iambus and Pyrrhic. 


Third Paeon 


\~s >»• \s 


anlmatus 


Pyrrhic and Trochee. 


Fourth Paeon 


N-X >W \^> 


cel6rltas 


Pyrrhic and Iambus. 


First Epitrile 


s-/ ~ — ' " 


voluptates 


Iambus and Spondee. 


Second Epitrite 


""■ ■ N--' —~" ~"~~ 


conditores 


Trochee and Spondee 


Third Epitrite 


— s_^ — 


discordlas 


Spondee and Iambus. 


Fourth Epitrite 


— - • — — \^ 


adduxistis 


Spondee and Trochee 


Proceleusmaticus 


S-^ N— ' \^ N-/" 


homlnlbus 


Two Pyrrhics. 


Dispondee 





or a tores 


Two Spondees. 


Diiambus 


s^ — — \^ — 


amaverant 


Two Iambi. 


Ditrochee 


•— s^ — y^ 


Cantilena 


Two Trochees 



§ 162 PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. 291 

ISOCHRONOUS FEET. 

1. In every foot, a long syllable is equal in time to two short ones. 
To constitute feet Isochronous, two things are necessary. 1st. That 
they have the same time; 2d. that they be interchangeable in metre. 

2. Feet have the same time which are measured by an equal num- 
ber of short syllables; thus, the Spondee, Dactyl, Anapaest, and Pro- 
celeusmaticus, have the same time, each being equal to four short 
syllables. 

3. Feet are interchangeable in metre, when the ictus or stress of 
the voice falls, or may fall, on the same portion of the foot. The 
part of the foot that receives the ictus, is called arsis, or elevation, 
the rest of the foot is termed thesis, or depression. 

4. The natural place of the arsis, is the long syllable of the foot. 
Hence, in the Iambus, it falls on the second syllable, and in the Tro- 
chee, on the first. Its place in the Spondee and Tribrach cannot be de- 
termined by the feet themselves, each syllable being of the same 
length. 

5. In all kinds of verse, the fundamental foot determines the place 
of the arsis for the other feet admitted into it, thus: In Dactylic 
verse, and Trochaic verse, the Spondee will have the arsis on the first 
syllable; — in Anapaestic, and Iambic, on the last. In Trochaic 
verse, the tribrach will have the arsis on the first syllable, vi, w w; 
in Iambic on the second, w £, ^ 

6. Those feet, then, according to the ancients, were called isochro- 
nous, which were capable of being divided into parts that were equal 
in time, so that a short syllable should correspond to a short; and a 
long, to a long, or to two short; thus: in Iambic and Trochaic verse, 



Iambus 



/ Trochee _/ I w 

I, y^, Tribrach J^, w -, 



Tribrach ^ 
In Dactylic and Anapaestic: thus, 

Dactyl _/ ^ w Anapaest w >^ j J^ 

Spondee -£ Spondee — | -£ 

But feet which cannot be divided in this manner, are not isochro- 
nous, though they have the same time ; thus, the Iambus and Trochee, 
though equal in time, cannot be divided so as to have the correspond 
ing parts of equal length. Thus, 

Iambus, 
Trochee, 



292 PROSODY. — METRE. § 163 

Hence these feet are not interchangeable, or isochronous; and for 
this reason a Trochee is n3ver admitted into Iambic verse nor an 

Iambus into Trochaic. The same is true of the Spondee, ( ) and 

Amphibrach, ( w ■— w ) and of the Amphibrach with the Dactyl or 
Anapaest. 



$ 163. OF METRE. 

1. Metre, in its general sense, means an arrangement of syllables and 
feet in verse, according to certain rules ; and in this sense applies, 
not only to an entire verse, but to part of a verse, or to any number 
of verses. A metre, in a specific sense, means a combination of two 
feet (sometimes called a syzygy) and sometimes one foot only. 

The distinction between rhythm and metre is this : — the former 
refers to the time only, in regard to which, two short syllables 
are equivalent to one long ; the latter refers both to the time and the 
order of the syllables. The rhythm of an anapaest and dactyl is the 
same ; the metre different. The term rhythm, is also understood in a 
more comprehensive sense, and is applied to the harmonious con- 
struction and enunciation of feet and words in connection ; thus, a 
line has rhythm when it contains any number of metres of equal time, 
without regard to their order. Metre requires a certain number of me- 
tres, and these arranged in a certain order. Thus, in this line, 

Panditur interea domus omnipotentis Olympi, 

there is both rhythm (as it contains six metres of equal value in re 
spect of time) and metre, as these metres are arranged according to 
the canon for Hexameter heroic verse, which requires a dactyl i . the 
5th, and a spondee in the 6th place. Change the order thus, 

Omnipotentis Olympi panditur interea domus, 

and the rhythm remains as perfect as before, but r e metre is de- 
stroyed ; it is no logger a Hexameter heroic line. 

2. The principal metres used in Latin poetry are six ; namely, 
1. Iambic. 2. Trochaic. 3. Anapaestic. 4. Dactylic. 5. Choriam- 
bic. 6. Ionic. These are so called from the foot which prevails i.i 
them. 

These different kinds of verse in certain varieties are also de- 
signated by the names of certain poets, who either invented 
them, or made special use of them in their writings. Thus, we have 
Asclepiadic, Glyconian, Alcaic, Sapphic, Pherecratian, &c. from As- 
clepiades, Glycon, Alcaeus, Sappho, Pherecrates, &c. 

3. In Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapaestic verse, a metre consists of 
two feet, (sometimes called a dipodia or syzygy,) in the other kinds 
of one foot. 

4. Averse consisting of one metre is calle 1 Monometer ; of two 
metres, Dimeter; of three, Trimeter; of four, Tetrameter; of five, 
Pentameter ; of six, Hexameter ; of seven, Heptameter ; &c. Hence, 
in Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapaestic verse, a monometer will contain 



§163 



PROSODY. METRE. 



two feet; a dimeter, four ; a trimeter, six; &c. in the other kinds of 
verse, a monometer contains one foot, a dimeter, two, a trimeter, 
three, &c. ' 

5. A verse or line of any metre may be complete, having precisely 
the number of feet or syllables that the canon requires ; ~or, it may 
be deficient ; or, it may be redundant. To express this, a verse is va- 
riously characterized as follows ; viz. 

1. Acatalectic , when complete. 

2. Catalectic, if wanting one syllable. 

3. Br achy catalectic, if wanting two syllables or a foot. 

4. Hyper catalectic, or hypcrmcter, when it has one or two syllables 
more than the verse requires. 

5. Acephalous, when a syllable is wanting at the besinnin^ of the 
line. 3 

6. Asynartete, when different measures are conjoined in one line. 

Hence, in order fully to describe any verse, three terms are employ- 
ed ; the first expressing the kind of verse ; the second, the number 
of metres : and the third the character of the line ; thus, 

Non vul- | tus in- J| stlntis | tyran- j| ni | 

is described j as, Iambic, dimeter, hyper catalectic. 

6. Verses or parts of verses are farther designated by a term ex- 
pressive of the number of feet, or parts of feet, which they contain. 
Thus, a line or part of a line containing 

three half feet is called trimimer, 
five half feet, " penthemimer, 

seven half feet, " hephthemimer. 
These are of use to point out the place of 

THE C^ESURAL PAUSE. 

7. Casura in metre is the separation, by the ending of a word, of 
syllables rhythmically or metrically connected. 

It is of three kinds, 1. Of the foot: 2. of the rhythm: 3. of the 
verse. 

1st. Caesura of the foot occurs when a word ends before a foot is 
completed ; as in the second, third, fourth and fifth feet of the follow- 
ing line ; 

Sllves- | trem tenu- | i Mu- | sam medi- | taris a- | vena 
2d. Caesura of the rhythm is the separation of the arsis from the 
thesis by the ending of a word, as in the second, third and fourth feet 
of the preceding line. 

This has sometimes the effect of making a final short syllable lon<*, 
by the force of the ictus ; as, 

Petori | businhl- | ans spi- | rantia | consulit | exta. 

Note.— This effect is not produced by the Caesura of the foot, nor of the verse 
unless they happen to coincide with the caesura of the rhythm. 

3d. The Caesura of the verse is such a division of the line into two 
parts, as affords to the voice a pause or rest, at a proper or fixed 
place without injuring the sense, by pausing in the middle of a vord 

25* 



294 PROSODY.— METRE. § 164 

8. The proper management of this pause is a great beauty in cer- 
tain kinds of verse, and shews the skill of the poet. In pentameter 
verse, its place is fixed ; in hexameter and other metres it is left to 
the poet. When it occurs at the end of the third half foot, it is called 
trimimeris , — of the fifth, penthemimeris ; — of the seventh, hephthemi- 
meris. 

9. The situation of each foot in a verse is called its place. 



§ 164. DIFFERENT KINDS OF METRE. 

The canons, or rules of the different kinds of metre used in Latin 
poetry are the following j 

I. IAMBIC METRE. 

1. A pure iambic line consists of iambic feet only ; as, 

Phase | bus il- jj U quern | vide- jj Us hos- j pites. jj 

where the single line marks the end of the foot; the double 
line, the end of the metre \ and the Italic syllable, the caesural 
pause. 

2. A mixed iambic line admits a spondee into the first, 
third, and fifth places ; and again in all these a dactyl or an 
anapaest is sometimes admitted for a spondee, and a tribrach 
for the iambus. 

3. This verse occurs in all varieties of length from the 
dimeter catalectic to the tetrameter. 

4. The caesura commonly takes place at the fifth half foot. 

5. Different varieties of this metre are denominated as fol- 
lows ; 

1st. Senarian, or Trim. acatalectic,used in tragedy and comedy. 

2d. Archilochian, or Trimeter catalectic. 

3d Arcfiilochian, or Dimeter hypermeter. 

4th. Anacreontic , or Dimeter catalectic. 

5th. Galliambus, or Dimeter catalectic, double ,• i. e. two verses in 

one line. 
6th. Hipponactic, or Tetrameter catalectic. 
7th. Choliambus, or Trimeter Acatalectic. This is called also, 

Scazon and Hipponactic trimeter, and has a spondee in the 

sixth place, and generally an iambus in the fifth. 
8th. Octonarius, or Tetrameter acatalectic, called also quadratics. 
9th. Acephalous, or Dimeter, wanting the first syllable of the first 

foot. This may be resolved into Trochaic dimeter catalectic. 



§ 164 PROSODY. METRE. 295 

II. TROCHAIC METRE. 

1. A pure trochaic line consists of trochees only. These, 
however, are but seldom used. An Acephalous trochaic be- 
comes an iambic line ; and an Acephalous iambic becomes a 
trochaic line. 

2. A mixed trochaic line admits a spondee, a dactyl, an 
anapaest, and sometimes a proceleusmatic in even places, i. e. 
in the 2d, 4th, 6th, &c. But in the odd places a trochee, or a 
tribrach, and in the last place, a trochee only. 

3. This verse may be used in all varieties from the Mono- 
meter hypercatalectic, (two trochees and one syllable,) to the 
tetrameter or octonarius catalectic. The varieties most used 
by the Latin poets, are 

1st. The Trochaic tetrameter catalectic, rarely pure : 
2d. The Sapphic, consisting of five feet, viz. a trochee, a 

spondee, a dactyl, and two trochees. It has thee aesural 

pause after the fifth half foot ; thus, 

lute- | ger "vi- | tae jj scele- | risque | purus. Hor. 

3d. The Phalcecian or Phaleucian consisting of five feetj 
viz. a spondee, a dactyl and three trochees $ thus, 

Non est | vivere | sed va | lere | vita. Mart. 

This verse neither requires nor rejects a caesura. 

4th. The Trochaic dimeter catalectic or Acephalous iambic 
dimeter. See I. 9th. 

5th. Other varieties but seldom used ; are, 1. the Pancratic mon- 
omeler, hypercatalectic. 2. The Ithyphalic, dimeter Brachycat. 
3. The Euripidean, dimeter catalectic. 4. The Alcmanic, 
dimeter acatalectic. 5. Anacreontic, dimeter acatalectic, with 
a pyrrhic in the first place. 6. The Hipponactic, tetrameter 
acatalectic. 

III. ANAPAESTIC METRE. 

1. A pure Anapaestic line consists of Anapaests only. 

2. The mixed anapaest has a spondee or a dactyl, feet of equal 
length, in any place. 

3. The following varieties occur, viz. 1st. The Anapastic Mono* 
meter, consisting of two anapaests. 2d. The Anapcestic dimeter, con- 
sisting of four Anapaests. 

Anapaestic verses are usually so constructed, that each measure 
ends with a word, so that they may be read in lines of one, two, or 
more measures. 



296 PROSODY. METBE. § 164 

4. Other varieties not much in use are the Simodian; Mon. Acat. 
The Partheniac, Dim. Cat. The Archebulian j trim. B. C. 

IV. DACTYLIC METRE. 

1. A pure Dactylic verse consists of dactyls only, which 
have the arsis on the first syllable of the foot. 

Of this verse one foot constitutes a metre, and they range in 
length from Dimeter to Hexameter. Of these the most important are, 

1. Hexameter or Heroic verse. 

Hexameter or Heroic verse consists of six feet, of which 
the fifth is a Dactyl, the sixth a spondee, and each of the 
other four a dactyl or a spondee ; as, 

Ludere | quae vel- | lem caia- | mo per- | misit a- [ gresti. Virg. 

Respecting this verse the following things may be noticed. 

1st. When a spondee occurs in the fifth place, the line is called 
spondaic. Such lines are of a grave character, and but rarely occur. 

2d When the line consists of dactyls, the movement is brisk and 
rapid, when of spondees, slow and heavy. Compare in this respect 
the two following lines : the first expresses the rapid movement of 
a troop of horse over the plain eager for the combat ; — the other de- 
scribes the slow and toilsome movements of the Cyclops at the la- 
bors of the forge. 

Quadrupe- | dante pu- | trem sonl- ] tu quatlt | ungula | campum. 
-Illi in- | ter se- | se mag- | na vl | brachla | tollunt. Virg. 

3d. The beauty and harmony of a Hexameter verse de- 
pends on the proper management of the cassura. The most 
approved csesural pause in heroic poetry, is that which oc- 
curs after the arsis of the third foot. Sometimes called the 
heroic csesural pause ; thus, 

At domiis | Interl- | or || re- | gall | splendlda, | luxu. Virg. 

In reading this line with due attention to quantity, we naturally 
pause where the csesural pause is indicated by the double line, and 
the whole movement is graceful and pleasing. Compare now with 
this, a line in which no attention is paid to the caesura, or in which, if 
one is made, you have to pause in the middle of a word and the dif- 
ference is manifest. 

Roma | moenla | ter- || rult ) Implger | Hannibal | armis. 

Sometimes the caesura falls after the thesis of the third foot, or the 
arsis of the fourth. In the last case a secondary one often occurs in 
the second foot. The pause at the end of the third foot was the least 
approved. The following lines are examples of each of these, 

1. Infan- | dum re- | gina |] ju- | bes reno I vfire do- | lorem. 

2. Primate- | net, || plau | suque vo- | Lit |] freml- | tuque se- | cundo. 

3. Cui non | dictus Hy- | las puer || et La- | tonla | Deles. 

2. A species of Hexameter is the Priapea?i. It is divisi- 
ble into two portions of three feet each, of which portions 



§ 164 PROSODY. METRE. 297 

the first begins generally with a trochee , and ends with an 
amphirnacer, and the second begins with a trochee ; as fol- 
lows, 

O c6 | Ionia | quae cupis || ponte | ludere [ longo. Catull. 
These parts, however, may very well be scanned, the first as a 
Glyconic, and the second as a Pherecratic verse, of which see under" 
(V) Choriambic verse. 

3. Pentameter verse consists of five feet. It is commonly 
arranged in two portions or hemistichs, of which the first 
contains two feet, dactyls or spondees, followed by a long 
syllable which ought to end a word ; and the second, two dac- 
tyls followed by a long syllable ; thus, 

Maxima [ de nlhl- | 15 || nascltur historl | a — Propert. 
Pomaque | non no- | lis || legit ab | arborl- | bus | TibulU 

Where the first distich does not end a word, or if there be an elision 
by Synaloepha or Echthlipsis, the verse is considered harsh. 

This verse is commonly used alternately with a hexameter line, 
which combination is commonly called Elegiac verse. 

4. Dactylic tetrameter, of which there are two kinds. 
1st. Dactylic tetrameter a priore, called also Alcmanian 

Dactylic tetrameter, which consists of the first four feet of 
a Hexameter line, the fourth being always a Dactyl 5 as, 
Solvltur [ acrls hy- | ems gra- | ta vice. Hor. 
2d. Dactylic tetrameter a posteriore, called also Spondaic 
tetrameter, which consists of the last four feet of a hexame- 
ter line ,' as, 

Sic tris- I tes af- | fatus a- ] micos. Hor. 

5. Dactylic trimeter, (or Choriambic Trimeter Catalectic) 
consists of the three last feet of a Hexameter line, (See 
Choriambic verse;) as, 

Gra to I Pyrrha sub | antro. Hor. 

6. Dactylic trimeter catalectic, also called Archilochian 
penthemimeris, consists of the first five half feet of a Hexa- 
meter line ; as, 

Arborl- | busque co | mac. Hor. 

7. Dactylic dimeter or Adonic — commonly used to con- 
clude a Sapphic Stanza — consists of a dactyl and spondee; 
thus, 

Rislt A I polio. 

V. CHORIAMBIC METRE. 
In Choriambic verse, the leading foot is a choriambus, but 
in the varieties of this metre, different other feet are admit- 



PROSODY. METRE. § 164 

ted, chiefly at the beginning or end of the line, or both. The 
principal varieties are the following, 

1. The Choriambic 'pentameter consists of a spondee, 
three choriambi and an iambus ; as, 

Tu ne | quaesierls | scire nefas | quera mihi quem | tibl. 

2. Choriambic tetrameter ', consists of three choriambi, or 
feet equivalent in length and a Bacchius ; as, 

Jane pater | Jane tuens | dive biceps | bliormis. 
Horace altered without improving this metre, by substituting a 
spondee for the iambus in the first foot ; as, 

Te deos o- | ro Sybarin | &c. 
Note. — Choriambic tetram. was originally called Phalaecian, from 
Phalsecus, who made great use of it. 

3. Asclepiadic tetrameter, consists of a spondee, two 
choriambi and an iambus 5 thus, 

x Msece- | nas atavis || edits re- | gibus. — Hot. 
Thrs form is uniformly used by Horace. Other poets sometimes 
make the first foot a dactyl. 

The caesural pause occurs at the end of the first choriambus. 
This verse is sometimes scanned as a Dactylic, pentameter cata- 
lectic ; thus, 

Maece- | nas ata- | vis | edite | reglbus. 

4. Choriambic trimeter or Glycomic, consists of a spon- 
dee, (sometimes an iambus or trochee,) a choriambus and 
an iambus ; as, 

Sic te J diva potens | Cypri. — Hor. 
"When the first foot is a spondee, it may be scanned as dactylic 
trimeter ; as, 

Sic te I diva po- | tens Cypri. 

5. Choriambic trimeter catalectic or Pherecratic, consists 
of a spondee, choriambus and a catalectic syllable ; as, 

Grato I Pyrrha sub ant- j tro 
Here also the first foot is sometimes a trochee or an iambus. When 
a spondee it may be scanned, as Dactylic trimeter, see IV. 5. 

6. Choriambic Dimeter, consists of a choriambus and a 
Bacchius ; as, 

Lydia die | per omnes. — Hor. 

VI. IONIC METRE. 
1. The Ionic a major e, or Sotadic Metre, consists of three 
Ionics a major e, and a spondee ; as, 

Has cum geml- | na compede | dedicat ca- | tenas. 

In this metre, the Ionic feet are often two trochees, as in the third 
foot of the preceding line ; and a long syllable is often resolved into 
two short ones 



§ 165-6 PROSODY. METRE. 299 

fJt T l* I ™ a ™ im r e > consists generally of three or four 
feet, which are all Ionics a minore ; as, 

Puer ales | tlbl tells | operosae- | que Minerva;. Hor. 



$ 165. COMPOUND METRES. 

HnV„°f mP T d m l trC ° r As V na »^ is the union of two 
kinds of metre m the same verse or line. Of these the fol- 
lowing are the chief. Io1 

1. Greater Alcaic. Iambic Mon. hyper + Chor. dim. Acat. 

Thus, -_|^_|_|___|_ 

*. Lesser Alcaic. Dactylic dim. + Trochaic Mon. 
Thus, — ^ W | __ _ ^ || _ , ^ 

3. ^rcMocfoarcffe^orDact.tetr.apriore+Troch.Dim B C 

Th „, = r % | z j- w | r ~: | _ [ _ | __| _J 

4. Dactylico-IamMc. Dactylic trim Cat. + Iambic dim. 

Thus, J "~l-~~|-l3.,|_^|3_| w _ 

5. IambicoBactylic. Iambic dim + Dactylic trim. Cat. 
Thus, ~-|~-|3_|.,_|ZC!__|_ 



§ 166 SCANNING. 

4»&^ffi&t3» the reso,vins of a line int0 

are vlried bv ££2iF" ^ b * w . hich s y llables in certai « situations 

FIGURES OF PROSODY. 
1. Synaloepha, cuts offa vowel or diphthong from the end 
of a word, when the next word begins with a vowel, or h 
to one* *„ f ° llowin & Jt ' thus inverting two syllables in- 

dZid™in£lT a b y S y naloe P h a, *«r' «n«}iia; Dardanidm infensi, Dar. 
aanta xnfensi; vento hue, vent' uc; thus; 

Quidve moror? si omnes uno ordine habetis Achivos. Virg. 



300 PROSODY. METRE. § 166 

Scanned thus, 
Quldvemo- | ror ? s' 6m | nes u- | n' or din' ha- | betls A- | chivos. 

The Synaloepha is sometimes neglected, and seldom takes place in 
the interjections O, heu, ah, proh, vcs, vah, hei. 

Long vowels and diphthongs, when not cut off, are sometimes short- 
ened; as, 

Insulse [ IonP | in mag- | no quas | dira Ce- | lseno. Virg. 
Credlmus | an qui a- | mant ip- | si sibl | somnla | f TngQnt. Id. 

2. Echthlipsis cuts off m with a vowel preceding it, from 
the end of a word, when the next word begins with a vowel, 
or h followed by a vowel ; as, 

Monstrum horrendum, informe, ingens,cui lumen ademptum. 

Scanned thus, 

Monstr' hor- | rend/ In - | form' in- | gens cui | lum6n ad | emptum 

This elision was sometimes omitted by the early poets; as, 
Corporum | offici- | um est quoni- | am preme- | re omnia | decorum . 
Lucr. 

3. A Synaloepha and Ecthlipsis are sometimes found at the end of 
a line, where, after the completing of the metre, a syllable remains 
to be joined to the next line, which of course, must begin with a vow- 
el; thus, 

Sternitur | infe- | lix ali- | one | vulnere | coelum || que. 
Adspicit, &c. 
Here the que and adspicit are joined; as, qv) adspicit. 
Jamque iter [ emen- | si, tur- | res ac j tecta La- | tino- j| rum 
Ardua, &c. where the -rum and ardua are joined; as, r' ardua. 

3. Synceresis, sometimes called Crasis, contracts two syl- 
lables into one; as, Phcethon for Pha'ethon this is done by 
forming two vowels into a diphthong ; as ar, ei, o'i, into ce, ei, 
oi; or pronouncing the two syllables as one ; thus, ea, iu, as 
if ya, yu, &c ; as, aurea, aurya; filius,fdyus; and ua, ui, &c. 
as if wa, wi; thus, genua, gemvd; tenuis, tenwis. 

4. Dicer esis divides one syllable into two ; as auldi, for 
aulce; T voice for Trojce; Perseus, for Perseus; mililus, for 
milvus; soliiit, for solvit; voliiit, for volvit; aquce, siietus, 
siiasit, Suevos, relanguit, reliqiias, for aquce, suetus, &c. as, 

Aulai in medio libabant pocula Bacchi. Virg. 
Stamina non ulli dissoliienda Deo. Pentam. Tibullus. 

5. Systole makes a long syllable short ; as, the penult in 
tulerunt; thus, 

Matri | longa de- | cem tul6- | rant fas- | tidia | menses. Virg. 



§ 167-8 PROSODY. METRE. 301 

Diastole makes a short syllable long , as the last syllable 
of amor in the following verse : 

Consi- | dant, si- J tantus a- | mor, et | mcenia | condant. Virg, 



§ 167. STANZA. 

A poem may consist of one or more kinds of verse. When a poem 
consists of one kind of verse it is called mcnocolon; of two f dicolon; of 
three, tricolon. 

The different kinds of verse in a poem are usually combined in 
regular portions called stanzas, or strophes, each of which contains 
the same number of lines, the same kinds of verse, and these ar- 
ranged in the same order. 

When a stanza or strophe consists cf two lines, the poem is called 
distrophon, of three lines tristrophon, of four ietrastr option. Hence 
poems, according to the number of kinds of verse they contain, and 
the number of lines in the stanza are characterized as follows ; 

Mo?wcolon, one kind of verse in the poem. 

Dicolon distrophon, two kinds of verse, and twolines in the stanza. 

Dicolon tristrophon, two kinds of verse, three lines in the stanza. 

Dicolon tetrastrophon, two kinds of verse, four lines in the stanza. 

Tricolon tristrophon, three kinds of verse, three lines in the stanza. 

Tricolon tetrastrophon, three kinds of verse, four lines in the stanza. 



§ 168. COMBINATIONS OF METRES IN HORACE. 

Horace makes use of nineteen different species of metre combined 
in eighteen different ways. They are arranged as follows; accord- 
ing to the order of preference given them by the poet. The refer- 
ences here, where not marked, are to § 164. 

No. 1. Two lines Greater Alcaic. § 165. 1. One Archolichian di- 
meter hypermeter, I. 2. 5. 3d ; and one Lesser Alcaic. 
§ 165. 2. 
No. 2. Three lines Sapphic, II. 2. One Adonic or Dactylic dim. 

IV. 7. 
No. 3. One line Choriambic trim, or Glyconic, V. 4. One choriam- 

bic tetram. or Asclepiadic V. 3. 
No. 4. One line Iambic trim, or Senarian, I. 3. 5. 1st. One Iambic 

dim. I. 2. 3. 
No. 5. Three lines, Chor. tetram. or Asclepiadic, V. 3. One 
Chor. trim, or Glyconic, V. 4. 
No. 6. Two lines Chor. tetram, or Asclepiadic, V. 3. One Chor. trim. 

Cat., or Pherecratic, V. 5. One Chor. trim or Glyconic. V. 4. 
No. 7. Choriambic tetrameter, or Asclepiadic alone, V. 3. 
No. 8. One line Dactylic Hexameter, IV. I. One Dactylic tetram. a 

posteriore, IV. 4. 2d. 
No. 9. Choriambic Pentameter only, V. 1. 

26 



302 



PROSODY.— METRE. 



§ 169 



No. 10. One line Dactylic Hexameter, IV. 1. One Iambic dim. T. 2. 3. 

No. 11. Iambic trimeter Senarian only, I. 2. 5. 1st. 

No. 12. One line Choriambic dim. V. 6. One Chor. tetram. (alter- 
ed,) V. 2. 

No. 13. One line Dactylic Hexameter, IV. 1. One Iambic trim, 
sen. I. 3. 5. 1st. 

No. 14. One line Dactylic Hexameter, IV. 1. One Archilochian 
Dactylic trimeter Catalectic, IV. 6. 

No. 15. One line Dactylic Hexameter, IV. 1. One Iambico Dacty- 
lic, § 165. 5. 

No. 16. One line Iambic trim. Senarian, I. 3. 5. 1st. One Dactylic 
Iambic. 165, 4. 

No. 17. One line Archilochian Heptameter. § 165. 3. One Archi- 
lochian Iambic trimeter, Catalectic, I. 2. 5, 2d. 

No. 18. One line Iambic dimiter Acephalous, 1. 5. 9th. and one Iambic 
trimeter Catalectic, I. 5. 2d. 

No. 19. Ionic a minore only, VI, 2. The first line contains three 
feet, the second four. 
Note. — The Satires and Epistles are in Dactylic Hexameter, IV. 1- 



$ 169. METRICAL KEY TO ODES OF HORACE. 

Containing in alphabetic order the the first words of each, with a 
reference to the Nos. in the preceding section where the stanza is 
described, and reference made to the place where each metre is ex- 
plained 



iEli vetusto No. 1 

JEquam memento 1 

Albi ne doleas 5 

Altera jam teritur 13 

Angustam amici 1 

At O deorum 4 

A^tdivere Lyce 6 

Bacchum in remotis 1 

Beatus ille 4 

Ccelo supinas 1 

Ccelo tonantem 1 

Cum tu Lydia 3 

Cur me querelis 1 

Delicta majorum 1 

Descende coelo 1 

Dianam tenerae 6 

DifFugere nives 14 

Dive quern proles 2 

Divis orte bonis 5 

Donarem pateras 7 

Donee gratus eram 3 

Eheu fugaces 1 

Est mihi nonum 2 



Et thure et fidibus No. 3 

Exegi monumentum 7 

Extremum Tanaim 5 

Faune nympharum 2 

Festo quid potius die 3 

Herculis ritu 2 

Horrida tempestas 15 

Ibis Liburnis 4 

Icci beatis 1 

Ille et nefasto 1 

Impios parrse 2 

Inclusam Danaen 5 

Intactis opulentior 3 

Integer vitae 2 

Interrcissa Venus diu 3 

Jam jam efficaci 11 

Jam pauca aratro 1 

Jam satis terris 2 

Jam veris comites 5 

Justum et tenacem 1 

Laudabuntalii 8 

Lupis et agnis 4 

Lydia die per omnes 12 



169 



PROSODY. 



-METRE. 



303 



Maecenas atavis No. 7 

Malasolula 4 

Martiis coelebs 2 

Mater saeva Cupidinum 3 

Mercuri facunde 2 

Mercuri nam te 2 

Miserarum est 19 

Mollis inertia 10 

Montium custos 2 

Motum ex Metello 1 

Musis amicus 1 

Natis in usum 1 

Ne forte credas 1 

Ne sit ancillae 2 

Nolis longa ferae 5 

Nondum subacta 1 

Non ebur neque aureum 18 

Non semper imbres 1 

Non usitata 1 

Non vides quanto 2 

Nox erat 10 

Nullam Vare sacra 9 

Nullus argento 2 

Nunc est bibendum 1 

O crudelis adhuc 9 

O Diva gratum 1 

O fons Blandusiae. 6 

O matre pulchra 1 

O nata mecum 1 

O navis referent 6 

O saepe mecum 1 

O Venus regina 2 

Odi profanum 1 

Otium Divos 2 

Parcius junctas 2 

Parcus Deorum 1 

Parentis olim 4 

Pastor quum traheret 5 



Persicos odi puer No. 2 

Petti nihil me 16 

Phoebe, silvarumque 2 

Phoebus volentem 1 

Pindarum quisquis 2 

Poscimur siquid 2 

Quae cura patrum 1 

Qualem ministrum 1 

Quando repostum 4 

Quantum distet ab Inacho. ... 3 

Quern tu Melpomene 3 

Quern virum aut heroa , 2 

Quid bellicosus 1 

Quid dedicatum 1 

Quid fles Asterie 6 

Quid immerentes 4 

Quid obseratis 11 

Quid tibi vis 8 

Quis desidero 5 

Quis multa gracilis 6 

Quo me Bacche 3 

Quo, quo scelesti ruitis ...... 4 

Rectius vives 2 

Rogare longo 4 

Scriberis Vario 5 

Septimi Gades 2 

Sic te Diva potens 3 

Solvitur acris hiems 17 

Te maris et terrae 8 

Tu ne qnaesieris 9 

Tyrrhena regum 1 

Ulla si juris 2 

Uxor pauperis Ibyci 8 

Velox amcenum 1 

Vides ut alta 1 

Vile potabis 2 

Vitas hinnuleo 6 

Vixi choreis 1 



APPENDIX. 



I. ROMAN COMPUTATION OF TIME. 

1. Divisions of the Year. 

Romulus is said to have divided the year into ten months, as fol- 
lows: 1. Martins, from Mars, his supposed father ; 2i Aprilis, from 
Aperio, " to open;" 3. Maius, from Maia, the mother of Mercury; 
4. Junius, from the goddess Juno. The rest were named from their 
number, as follows: 5. Quintilis, afterwards Julius, from Julius 
Ccesar; 6. Sextilis, afterwards Augustus, from Augustus Ccesar; 
7. September; 8. October; 9. November; and 10. December. Numa 
afterwards added two months; viz: 11. Januarius, from the god 
Janus ; 12. Februarius, fromfebruo, "to purify." 

As the months were regulated by the course of the moon, it was 
soon found that the months and seasons did not always correspond, 
and various expedients were adopted to correct this error. Much 
confusion however still remained till about A. U. 707, when Julius 
Caesar, assisted by Sosigenes, an astronomer of Alexandria, reformed 
the Calendar, adjusted the year according to the course of the sun, 
and assigned to each of the twelve months the number of days which 
they still contain. 

2. The Roman Month. 

The Romans divided their month into three parts, called Kalends, 
If ones, and Ides*. The first day of every month was called the Ka- 
lends; the fifth was called the Nones; and the thirteenth was called 
the Ides; except in March, May, July and October, when the Nones 
fell on the seventh and the Ides on the fifteenth, and the day was 
numbered according to its distance, (not after but) before each of 
these points; that is, after the Kalends they numbered the day accord- 
ing to its distance before the Nones; after the Nones, according to its 
distance before the Ides; and after the Ides, according to its distance 
before the Kalends — both days being always included. The day before 
each of these points was never numbered, but called Pridie, or ante 
diem Nonorum, or Iduum, or Kalendarum, as the case might be; the 
day before that was called tertio, the day before that, quarto, &c; 
Scil. Nonorum, Iduum, Kalendarum. 

Various expressions and constructions were used by the Romans in 
the notation of the days of the month. Thus, for example, the 29th 
December or the 4th of the Kalends of January, was expressed dif- 
ferently, as follows : 

* The first day was named Kalends, from the Greek, xaXsGJ, to call, because when 
the month was regulated acccording to the course of the moon, the priest announced 
the new moon, which was of course the first day of the month. The Nones were so 
called because that day was always the ninth from the Ides. The term Ides is derived 
from an obsolete Latin verb iduare, to divide, it is supposed because that day being 
about the middle of the month divided it into two nearly equal parts. 



ROMAN COMPUTATION OF TIME. 



305 



1st Quarto Kalendarum Januarii. Abbreviated, IV. Kal. Jan., or 
2a. Quarto Kalendas Januarii. " IV. Kal. Jan. or 

3d. Quarto Kalendas Januarias. u IV. Kal! Jan!' or 

4th. Ante diem quartum Kal. Jan. " a. d. IV. K. Jan. 

In these expressions quarto agrees with die understood, and die 
governs Kalendarum in the genitive. Kalendas is governed by ante 
understood. In the first and second expression Januarii is considered 
as a noun governed by Kalendarum and Kalendas; in the third Janu- 
arias is regarded as an adjective agreeing with Kalendas; in the 
fourth, ante diem quartum is a technical phrase for die quarto ante, 
and frequently has a preposition before it; as, in ante diem, &c, or 
ex ante diem, &c. 

The notation of Nones and Ides was expressed in the same way 
and with the same variety of expression. 

The correspondence of the Roman notation of time with our own 
may be seen by inspection of the following 

TABLE. 



Days of 


Mar. Mai. 


Jan. Aug. 


Apr. J-n. 


Febr. 


our 


Jul. Oct. 


Dec. 


Sept. Nov. 


28 days. 
Bissex. 29. 


months. 


31 days. 


31 days. 


30 days. 


1 


Kalendae. 


Kalendae. 


Kalendae. 


Kalendae. 


2 


VI. nonas. 


IV. nonas. 


IV. nonas 


IV. nonas. 


3 


V. « 


III. " 


III. 


III. " 


4 


IV. " 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 


Pridie « 


5 


III. " 


Nonae. 


Nonae. 


Nonae. 


6 


Pridie " 


VIII. idus. 


VIII. idus. 


VIII. idus. 


7 


Nonae. 


VII. " 


VII. 


VII. " 


8 


VIII. idus. 


VI. " 


VI. " 


VI. " 


9 


VII. " 


V. M 


V. « 


V. « 


10 


VI. " 


IV. <« 


IV. " 


IV. " 


11 


V. " 


III. " 


III. " 


III. " 


22 


IV. " 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 


13 


III. " 


Idus. 


Idus. 


Idus. 


14 


Pridie " 


XIX. kal. 


XVIII. kal. 


XVI. kal. 


15 


Idus. 


XVIII. " 


XVII. " 


XV. " 


16 


XVII. kal. 


XVII. " 


XVI. " 


XIV. " 


17 


XVI. " 


XVI. « 


XV. " 


XIII. « 


18 


XV. " 


XV. " 


XIV. " 


XII. « 


19 


XIV. " 


XIV. " 


XIII. " 


XL " 


20 


XIII. " 


XIII. " 


XII. " 


X. " 


21 


XII. " 


XII. " 


XL •< 


IX. " 


22 


XI. " 


XI. !« 


X. 


VIII. " 


23 


X. " 


X. M 


IX. " 


VII. " 


24 


IX. " 


IX. " 


VIII. « 


VI. " 


25 


VIII. " 


VIII. « 


VII. M 


v. n 


26 


VII. " 


VII. " 


VI. " 


IV. « 


21 


VI. " 


VI. " 


V. " 


in. " 


28 


V. " 


V. " 


IV. " 


Pridie Mar 


29 


IV. " 


IV. « 


III. " 




30 


III. " 


III. " 


Pridie " 




31 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 







306 APPENDIX. 

3. Rules for reducing Time. 
As, however, this table cannot be always at hand, the following 
simple rules will enable a person to reduce time without a table 

I. TO REDUCE ROMAN TIME TO OUR OWN. 

For reducing Kalends. 

Kalendce are always the first day of the month: — Pridie Kalenda- 
rum, always the last day of the month preceding. For any other 
notation observe the following 

Rule. Subtract the number of the Kalends given from 
the number of days in the preceding month ; add 2, and 
the result will be the day of the preceding month ; thus, 

X. Kal. Jan.— Dec. has days 31— 10=21+2=23d of Deer. 
XVI. Kal. Dec— Nov. has days 30— 16=14+2=16thof Nov'r. 

For reducing Nones and Ides. 
Rule. Subtract the number given from the number of the 
day on which the Nones or Ides fall, and add 1. The result 
will be the day of the month named; thus, 

IV. Non. Dec— Nones on the 5 — 4=1+1=2, or 2d Dec'r. 
VI. Id. Dec— Ides on the 13— 6=7+1=8, or 8th Dec'r. 
IV. Non. Mar. — Nones on the 7 — 4=3+1=4, or 4th March. 
VI. Id. Mar.— Ides on the 15—6=9+1=10, or 10th March. 

II. FOR REDUCING OUR TIME TO ROMAN. 

If the day is that on which the Kalends, Nones, or Ides fall, call it 
hy these names. If the day before, call it Pridie Kal. (of the fol- 
lowing month,) Prid. Non., Pridie Id. (of the same month.) Other 
days to be denominated according to their distance before the point 
next following, viz: those after the Kalends and before the Nones, to 
be called Nones ; those after the Nones and before the Ides, to be called 
Ides; and those after the Ides and before the Kalends, to be called 
Kalends, of the month following ; as follows: 
For reducing to Kalends. 
Eule. Subtract the day of the month given from the 
number of days in the month, and add 2. The result will 
be the number of the Kalends of the month following; thus: 
Dec. 23d.— Dec. has days 31—23=8+2=10, or X. Kal. Jan. 
Nov. 16th.— Nov. has days 30—16=14+2=16, or XVI. Kal. Dec. 

For reducing to Nones and Ides. 
Rule. Subtract the day of the month given from the day 
of the Nones, (if between the Kalends and Nones,) or from 
the day of the Ides, (if between the Nones and Ides,) and 
add 1. The result will be the number of the Nones or Ides 
respectively; as, 

Dec. 2d.— Day of the Nones 5—2=3+1=4, or IV. Non. Dec 
Dec. 8th. " Ides 13—8=5+1=6, or VI. Id. Dec. 

March 4th. M Nones 7— 4=3+1=4, or IV. Non. Mai- 

March 10th. " Ides 15—10=5+1=6, or VI. Id. Mar. 



ROMAN NAMES. 307 

Division of the Roman Day. 

The Roman civil day extended, as with us, from midnight to mid- 
night, and its parts were variously named; as, media nox, Gallicin- 
ium, Canticinium, diluculum, mane, Antemeridianum, Meridies, 
Pomeridianum, &c. 

The natural day extended from sunrise (solis ortus,) till sunset, 
(solis occasus) and was divided into twelve equal parts, called hours, 
(horce); which were of course longer or shorter according to the 
length of the day. At the equinox their hour and ours would be of 
the same length; but as they began to number at sunrise the number 
would be different; i. e., their first hour would correspond to our 7 
o'clock, their second to our 8 o'clock, &c. 

The night was divided by the Romans into four watches, (Vigilice) 
each equal to three hours; the first and second extending from sunset 
to midnight, and the third and fourth from midnight to sunrise. 

II. OF ROMAN NAMES. 

The Romans at first seem to have had but one name; as, Romulus, 
Remus, Numitor; sometimes two; as, Numa Pompilius, Ancus Mar* 
tius, &c; but when they began to be divided into tribes or clans, 
(gentes,) they commonly had three names — the Prcenomen, the No- 
men, and the Cognomen; arranged as follows: 

1. The Prcenomen stood first, and distinguished the individual . It 
was commonly written with one or two letters; as, A. for Aulus, C. 
for Caius, Cn. for Cneius, &c. 

fc The Nomen, which distinguished the gens. This name com- 
monly ended in ius; as, Cornelius, Fabius, Tullius, &c; and 

3. The Cognomen, or surname, was put last and marked the fam- 
ily; as, Cicero, Ccesar, &c. 

Thus, in Publius Cornelius Scipio, Publius is the Prcenomen, and 
denotes the individual; Cornelius is the Nomen, and denotes the gens; 
and Scipio is the Cognomen, and denotes the family . 

4. Sometimes a fourth name called the Agnomen was added, as a 
memorial of some illustrious action or remarkable event. Thus, 
Scipio was named Africanus, from the conquest of Carthage in 
Africa. 

The three names, however, were not always used — commonly two, 
and sometimes only one. In speaking to any one, the Prcenomen was 
commonly used, which was peculiar to Roman citizens. 

When there was only one daughter in a family, she was called by 
the name of the gens with a feminine termination; as, Tullia, the 
daughter of M. Tullius Cicero; Julia, the daughter of C. Julius 
Ccesar. If there were two the elder was called Major, and the 
younger Minor; as, Tullia Major, &c. If more than two, they were 
distinguished by numerals; as, Prima, Secunda, Tertia, &c. 

Slaves had no Prcenomen, but were anciently called by the prseno- 
men of their master; as, Marcipor, as if Marci puer; Lucipor, 
(Lucii puer,) &c. Afterwards they came to be named either from 
their country or from other circumstances; as, Syrus, Davus, Geta, 
Tiro, Laurea; and still more frequently from' their employment; as, 
Medici, Chirurgi, Pcedagogx, Grammatici,Scribce, Fabri, &c. 



303 



APPENDIX. 



The most common abbreviations of Latin names are the follow- 



ing, viz: 
A., Jlulus. 
C, Cains. 
Cn., Cneius. 
D., Decimus. 
L., Lucius. 
M., Marcus. 



M. T. C, Marcus, Q., or Qu., Quintus. 
Tullius Cicero. Ser.. Servius. 



M. ? , Manius. 
Mam., Mamercus. 
N., Numerius. 
P., Publius. 
Other Abbreviations. 



S., or Sex., Sextus. 

Sp., Spurius. 

T., Tito. 

Ti., or Tib. ; Tiberius 



S., Salutem, Sacrum, 

Senatus. 
S. D. P., Salutem du 

cit plurimam. 
S. P. Q: R., Senatus 

populusque Roma- 

nus. 



A. d., ^n^e cft'c7tt. Id., Idws. 

A. U., ^titio Urbis. Imp., Imp er at or. 

A. tJ. C, ^nno wr&is Non.. Nonce. 

conditce. P. C, Patres con- 

Cal. orkal., Kalendce. scripti. 
Cos., Consul. (Singu- P. R., Populus Roma 

lar.) ti ws. 

Coss., Consul es. (Plu- Pont. Max., Pontifex S. C, Senatus consul- 

ral.) maximus. turn. 

D., Divus. Pr., Prcetor. 

Eq. Rom., Eques Ro- Proc, Proconsul. 

manus. Resp., Respublica. 

III. DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN PEOPLE. 

The Roman people were originally divided as follows: 

1. Patres. Fathers, or Senators, called also p'atrones, from their 

relation to the plebeians, to whom they were the legal protectors. 

2. Plebes, or common people, called also clientes. • 
There were afterwards added 

3. Equites, or Knights, Persons of merit and distinction selected 

from the two orders, whose duty at first was to serve in war as 
cavalry, but they were afterwards advanced to other important 
offices. They must be over 18 years of age, and possess a for- 
tune of four hundred thousand sesterces. 

4. Liberti, or Libertini. Freedmen. Persons who had once been 

slaves, but obtained their freedom and ranked as citizens. 

5. Servi. Slaves. 

When Romulus arranged the affairs of the new city he appointed 
a council of 100 Patres from the Romans, and afterwards added to 
them 100 more from the Sabines. Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king 
of Rome, added 100 more, called Patres minorum gentium, in rela- 
tion to whom the former senators were called Patres majorum gen- 
tium, making 300 in all. A great part of these were slain by Tar- 
quin the proud; and after his expulsion, Brutus, the first consul, 
chose a number to supply their place, who were called Patres con- 
scripti, because they were enrolled with the other senators. This 
title was afterwards applied to all the senators in council assembled. 

The sons of the Patres were called Patricii, or Patricians. Be- 
sides these distinctions among the Romans, there were also distinc- 
tions of rank or party, as follows: 
Nobiles, whose ancestors or themselves held any curule office, i. e., 

had been Consul, Prcetor, Censor, or Curule JEdile. 
Ignobiles, who neither themselves nor their ancestors held any curule 
office. 



DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN CIVIL OFFICERS. 309 

Optimates, those who favored the senate. 
Populares, those who favored the people. 

IV. DIVISION OF THE ROMAN CIVIL OFFICERS. 
At first Rome was governed by kings for the space of 244 years. 
The ordinary magistrates after that till the end of the republic, were, 

1. Consuls, or chief magistrates, of whom there were two. 

2. Prcetors, or judges, also two in number, next in dignity to the 

consuls. 

3. Censors, who took charge of the census and had a general super- 

vision of the morals of the people. 

4. Tribunes, of the people, the special guardians of the people 

against the encroachments of the patricians, and who by the 
word " Veto/' I forbid, could prevent the passage of anjpaw. 

5. JEdiles, who took care of the city and had the inspection and 

regulation of its public buildings, temples, theatres, baths, &c, 

6. Qucestors, or Treasurers, who collected the public revenues. 
Under the emperors there were added, 

1. Prcefectus Urbi, or Governor of the city. 

2. Prcefectus Prcetorii, Commander of the body guards. 

3. Prcefectus Annonce, whose duty it was to procure and distribute 

grain in times of scarcity. 

4. Prcefectus militaris aerarii, who had charge of the military fund. 

5. Prcefectus Classis, Admiral of the fleet. 

6. Prcefectus Vigilum, or captain of the watch. 

V. THE ROMAN ARMY. 

^Jhe Romans were a nation of warriors. All within a certain age 
(17 to 45,) were obliged to go forth to war at the call of their coun- 
try. When an army was wanted for any purpose, a levy was made 
among the people of the number required. These were then arrang- 
ed, officered and equipped for service. 

The Legion. The leading division of the Roman army was the 
legion which when full consisted of 6000 men, but varied from that 
to 4000. 

Each legion was divided into ten cohorts, each cohort into three 
maniples, and each maniple into two centuries. 

The complement of cavalry (equitatus,) for each legion was three 
hundred, called Ala, or Justus equitatus. These were divided into 
ten turmcs or troops; and each turma into three decurice, or bodies of 
ten men. 

Division of the Soldiers. 
The Roman soldiers were divided into three classes, viz: 

1. Hastati, or spearmen; young men who occupied the first line. 

2. Principes, or middle aged men, who occupied the middle line. 

3. Triarii; veterans of approved valor, who occupied the third line. 
Besides these there were, 

4. Velites; or light armed soldiers, distinguished for agility and swift- 

ness. 
6. Funditores; or slingers. 
6. Sagittarii; or bowmen. 



310 



APPENDIX. 



The Officers of the Legion were, 

1. Six Military tribunes, who commanded under the consul in turn, 

usually a month. 

2. The Centuriones, who commanded the centuries. 

The officers of the Cavalry were, 

1. The Prafectus Alee, or commander of the wing. 

2. The Decuriones, or captains of ten. 

The whole army was under the command of the consul or procon- 
sul, who acted as commander-in-chief. Under him were his Legati, 
or lieutenants, who acted in his absence or under his direction; or, as 
his deputies, were sent by him on embassies or on business of special 
importance. 
#VI. ROMAN MONEY— WEIGHTS— AND MEASURES. 
Roman Money. 

The principal coins among the Romans were — Brass: the Jlsand its 
divisions; — 'Silver: the Sestertius, Quinarius, and Denarius, called 
bigati and quadrigati, from the impression of a chariot drawn by 
two or four horses on one side;— Gold: the Aureus or Solidus. 

Before the coining of silver the Romans reckoned by the Jts, a 
brass coin, called also libra- This coin was originally the weight of 
the Roman libra or pondus, but was afterwards reduced at different 
times, till at last it came to one twenty-fourth of a pound, and was 
called libella. It was divided into twelve equal parts called UncicB, 
any number of which had a distinct name, as follows: 

A 
A 
ft 
A 

After the use of silver money, accounts were kept in Sesterces 5 
(Sestertii.) This coin, emphatically called nummus, (money,) was 
originally equal to 2J asses, as the name sestertius means. Its sym- 
bol was L. L .S., i. e., Libra Libra Semis, or the numeral letters, 
thus, IIS, or with a line across HS. Other coins were multiples of 
this; thus, the denarius was equal to 4 sesterces or 10 asses, and the 
aureus, a gold coin, was equal to 25 denarii, or 100 sestertii. When 
the as was reduced in weight after A. U. C. 536, the sestertius was 
worth 4 asses and the denarius 16. 

A thousand sestertii was called sestertiuin^ (not a coin but the name 
of a sum,) and was indicated by the mark us. This word was never 
used in the singular; and any sum less than 2,000 sesterces was called 
so many sestertii; 2,000 was called duo or bina sestertia; 10,000, dena 
sestertia; 20,000, vicena sestertia, &c, up to a million of sesterces; 
which was written decies centena millia sestertiorum, or nummorum, 
ten times a hundred thousand sesterces. This was commonly abbre- 
viated into decies sestertium, or decies nummum, in which expressions 
centena millia, or centies millia is always understood. 

The following table will show the value of the Roman as, in fede- 
ral money, both before and after the Punic war, and of the larger 
coins at all times 



TJncia. 
or \ Sextans, 
or \ Quadra?is. 
or J Triens, 


A or J 

7 

A or f 


Semis, sem- 

bella. 
Septunx. 
Bes, or bes- 


t 9 2 or | 
i§ or f 
U 


Dodrans 
Dextans, 
Deunx. 


Quincunx, 




sis. 







ROMAN MONEY WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



311 



2 

2 

Before 536-2£ 

After 536-4 

2 

2 
25 



1. Table of Roman Money. 

Before A. U. 
536. 
D. cts. m. 
3.8 
7.7 
1 5.4 



Teruncius or 3 Unciae,. . . . 
Teruncii = 1 Sembella,. 
= 1 As, 

= 1 Sestertius,. 



Sembella 
> Asses, 
Sestertii 



3 8.6 



Quinarii 
Denarii 



7 7.3 

15 4.7 



10 Aurei 



= 1 Quinarius or 

Victoriatus 
= 1 Denarii. . . . 
= 1 Aureus, or 
== Soiidus,.. 3 86 8.4 
=f 1 Sestertium, 38 68 4.6 



After A. U. 

536. 

D. cts. m. 

2.4 

4.8 

9.6 

3 8.6 



7 7.3 
15 4.7 

3 86 8.4 
38 68 4.6 



2. Roman Weights, 



Troy Weight. Avoirdupois W } t. 



TheSiliqua (equal to 4 Cus,). 



Lbs.oz. dwt. ers, 



3 Siliqua 

2 Oboli 

4 Scrupula 
1\ Sextula 
If Siciliquus 

3 Duellas 
12 Unciae 



1 Obolus,. 
== 1 Scrupulum, 
= 1 Sextula,.. . . 
— 1 Siciliquus,. . 

== 1 Duella, 

= 1 Uncia, 

= 1 Libra, 



10 





2 


92 




8 


76 




17 


53 


2 22 


13 


4 


9 


19 


5 


20 


26 


7 


12.79 





9 


53 



The Drachma was 3 Scrupula. 



3. Roman Liquid Measure. 



Lbs. oz. drs. 
0.106 
0.320 
0.641 
2.564 
3.847 
5.129 
15.389 
11 8.668 



Galls, qts. pts. 
0.019 



2 
2 

6 
4 
2 

20 



0.079 
0.118 
0.237 
0.475 
0.950 
1.704 
0.819 
1.639 



114 0.795 



1 Ligula, or Cochleare, is equal to 
4 Ligula, = 1 Cyathus, 
1^ Cyathi, = 1 Acetabulum 

2 Acetabula, = 1 Quartarius, 
Quartarii, = 1 Hemina, 
Heminae, = 1 Sextarius, 
Sextarii, = 1 Congius, 
Congii, = 1 Urna, 
Urnae, == 1 Amphora, 
Amphorae, = 1 Culeus, 

The Sextarius was divided into 12 Uncioz, one of which was the 
Cyathus, equal to a small wine glass. 

4. Roman Dry Measure. 

Pks. galls, qts. pts. 

1 Sextarius, (Same as in liquid measure,) 0.950 
8 Sextarii, =1 Semi-modius, 3 1.606 

2 Semi-modi, =1 Modius, 1 3 1.213 

Roman Measures of Length. 
The Roman foot, (Pes,) like the as, was divided into 12 uncia, 
different numbers of which were sometimes called by the same names 



312 APPENDIX. 

as those of the as; viz: Sextans, quadrans, &c. The measures less 
than the uncia were the digitus = J; the semiuncia = i; the sicili- 
quus = i; and the sextula = l-6th of the uncia; i. e., theses, or 
foot, contained 12 uncice, or 16 digiti, or 24 semiuncia, or 48 siciliqui, 
or 72 sextulce. 

5. Table of Measures above a Pes. 

M. yds. ft. 

1 Pes = 12 Unciae, or 16 Digits, .97 

1^ Pes = 1 Palmipes, 1.21 

li Pes = 1 Cubitus, 1.45 

2^ Pedes = 1 Pes Sestertius, * 2.42 

5 Pedes = 1 Passus, 11.85 

125 Passus = 1 Stadium, 202 0.72 

8 Stadia = 1 Milliare, or mile, 1617 2.75 

6. Table of Land Measure. 

A. roods, poles, sq. ft. 

100 Pedes quadrati, = 1 Scrupulum, 94.23 

4 Scrupula, = 1 Sextula, 1 104.69 
1 1-5 Sextulae = 1 Actus Simplex, 1 180.08 

5 Actus, or 6 Sextulae, == 1 Uncia, 8 83.65 

6 Unciae, = 1 Actus quadratus, 1 9 229.67 

2 Actus quadrati, = 1 Jugerum, (As,) 2 19 187.09 
2 Jugera. == 1 Haeredium, 1 39 101.83 

100 Haeredia, = 1 Centuria, 124 2 17 109.79 

4 Centuriae, = 1 Saltus, 498 1 29 166.91 

The Roman Jugerum or As of land was also divided into 12 Unciae, 
any number of which was denominated as before, 

VII. DIFFERENT AGES OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

Of the Roman literature previous to A. U. 514 scarcely a vestige 
remains. The Roman writers subsequent to that period have been 
arranged into four classes, with reference to the purity of the lan- 
guage at the time in which they lived. These are called the Golden 
age, the Silver age, the Brazen age, and the Iron age. 

The Golden age extends from the time of the second Punic war, 
A, U. 514, to the death of Augustus, A. D. 14, a period of about 
250 years. In that period Facciolatus reckons up in all 62 writers, 
of many of whose works however only fragments remain. The most 
distinguished writers of that period are Terence, Catullus, Ccesar, 
Nepos, Cicero, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Livy , and Sallust. 

The Silver age extends from the death of Augustus to the death 
of Trajan, A. D. 118, a period of 104 years. The writers who 
flourished in this age are about twenty-three in number, of whom 
the most distinguished are Celsus, Villeius, Columella, the Senecas, 
the Plinies, Juvenal, Quintilian, Tacitus, Suetonius, and Curtius. 

The writers of the Brazen age, extending from the death of Tra- 
jan till Rome was taken by the Goths, A. D. 410, were 35; the most 
distinguished of whom were Justin, Terentianus, Victor, Lactan- 
tius, and Claudian. 

From this period commenced the Iron age, during which the Latin 
language was much adulterated by the admixture of foreign words, 
and its purity, elegance, and strength greatly declined. 



BULLIONS' 

SERIES OF GRAMMARS, 

ENGLISH, LATIN AND GREEK, 

ON THE SAME PLAN, 

FOR THE USE OF 

Colleges, Academies & Common Schools, 

(Published by Pratt, Woodford & Co.,N. Y.) 



In preparing this series, the main object has been, First: 
To provide for the use of schools a set of class books on 
this important branch of study, more simple in their ar- 
rangement, more complete in their parts, and better adapted 
to the purposes of public instruction, than any heretofore in 
use in our public Seminaries : and Secondly, to give the 
whole a uniform character by following, in each, substan- 
tially, the same arrangement of parts, using the same 
grammatical terms, and expressing the definitions, rules, 
and leading parts, as nearly as the nature of the case 
would admit in the same language; and thus to render the 
study of one Grammar a more profitable introduction to the 
study of another than it can be, when the books used dif- 
fer so widely from each other in their whole style and ar- 
rangement, as those now in use commonly do. By this 
means, it is believed, much time and labor will be saved, 
both to teacher and pupil, — the analogy and peculiarities 
of the different languages being constantly kept in view, will 
show what is common to all, or peculiar to each, — the confu- 
sion and difficulty unnecessarily occasioned by the use of 



elementary works, differing widely from each other in lan- 
guage and structure will be avoided, — and the progress of 
the student rendered much more rapid, easy anr* satis- 
factory. 

These works form a complete series of elementary 
books, in which the substance of the best Grammars in 
each language has been compressed into a volume of 
convenient size, handsomely printed on a fine paper, 
neatly and strongly bound, and at a moderate price. 
The whole series is now submitted to the judgment of 
a discerning public, and especially to teachers and su- 
perintendents of schools, and seminaries of learning through- 
out the United States. 

The following notices and recommendations of the 
works separately, and of the series, both from individuals 
of the highest standing in the community, and from the 
public pvess, will furnish some idea of the plan pro- 
posed, and of the manner in which it has been executed 

I. THE PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Comprising the substance of the most approved English Grammars 
extant — with copious exercises in Parsing and Syntax. Fifth edition 
with an Appendix, of various and useful matter, pp. 216 ; 12 mo. New- 
York, Robinson, Pratt & Co. 

This work, on the plan of Murray's Grammar, has been prepared with 
much care, and with special reference to the wants of our Common 
Schools. It comprises in a condensed form, and expressed in plain and 
perspicuous language, all that is useful and important in the works of 
the latest and best writers on this subject, — an advantage possessed in an 
equal degree by no similar work now in use. It is the result not only 
af much study and careful comparison, but of nearly twenty-five years 
experience in the school room, during which, the wants of the pupil 
and the character of books best adapted to those wants, have been care- 
fully noted ; and its adaptation to the purpose of instruction has now been 
thoroughly tested and approved in some of the best schools in this coun- 
try. It is beautifully printed on a fine strong paper, neatly and firmly 



found, and forms one of the most complete, useful, and economical school 
books ever offered to the public. The following are a few extracts from, 

NOTICES AND RECOMMENDATIONS. 

The undersigned have great satisfaction in recommending to the pub- 
lic, "The Principles of English Grammar," by Prof. Bullions, of the 
Albany Academy. Proceeding upon the plan of Murray, he has availed 
himself of the labors of the most distinguished grammarians, both at 
home and abroad ; and made such a happy use of the helps afforded him, 
that we know of no work of the kind, in the same compass, which is 
equal to it in point of merit. Among its many excellencies, it is not the 
least, that Prof. B. has given a practical illustration of every principle 
from the beginning to the end ; and the possession of his Grammar en- 
tirely supersedes the necessity of procuring a separate volume of Exer- 
cises on the Rules ef Syntax. In a word, we can truly say, in the lan- 
guage of the author, " that there is nothing of much importance in 
Murray's larger Grammar, or in the works of subsequent writers, that 
will not be found condensed here." 

John Ludlow, Alonzo Crittentcn, 

Isaac Ferris, J. M. Garfield, 

Alfred Conkling, Robert McKee, 

T. Romeyn Beck. 
Albany, October 8, 1842. 

[-4n Extract from the Minutes of the Board of Trustees of the Al. 
bany Female Academy.] 
At a meeting of the trustees of the Albany Female Academy, held on 
the third instant, the book committee reported, that they had examined 
Professor Bullions' English Grammar, recently published in this city: 
and that in their opinion, it contains all that is useful in the most im- 
proved treatises now in use, as well as much valuable original matter : 
that from the copious exercises in false syntax, it will supersede the ne- 
cessity of a separate volume on that subject ; and recommend that it 
should be used as the text book in this institution. 

On motion, it was resolved, that the report of the committee be ac- 
cepted, and the treatise on English Grammar ; by the Rev. Peter Bul- 
lions, adopted as the text book in this academy. 

An Extract from the Minutes. 

A. Crittenton, Secretary of the 
Board of Trustees, and 
Principal of the Academy. 
Albany, October 13, 1834. 

Sing Sing, November 1, 1834. 
Dear Sir— I have examined your English Grammar with no small 
degree of satisfaction ; and though I am not in the habit of recommend- 
ing books in this manner, I am constrained in this case to say, I think 
yovL have conferred another important favour on the cause of education 



The great defects of most of the English grammars now in use, parti(H2- 
larly in the omission of many necessary definitions, or in the want of 
perspicuity in those given, and also in the rules of construction, are in a 
great measure happily supplied. I am so well pleased with the result of 
youj labors, that I have adopted it, (as I did your Greek Grammar) for 
both our institutions. Yours respectfully, 

Nathaniel S. Prime, Principal oj 
Rev. P. Bullions, Mt. Pleasant Academy } 



The undersigned hold the responsibility of recommendation as an itn 
portant one—often abused, and very frequently used to obliged a per- 
sonal friend, or to get rid of an urgent applicant. They further appeal 
to their own conduct for years past, to show that they have only occa- 
sionally assumed this responsibility ; and therefore feel the greater confi- 
dence in venturing to recommend the examination, and the adoption of 
the Rev. Dr. Bullions' English Grammar, as at once the most concise 
and the most comprehensive of any with which they are acquainted ; as 
furnishing a satisfactory solution of nearly all the difficulties of the Eng- 
lish language ; as containing a full series of exercises in false syntax, 
with rules for their correction ; and finally, that the arrangement is in 
every way calculated to carry the pupil from step to step in the success- 
ful acquisition of that most important end of education, the knowledge 
and use of the English language. GIDEON HAWLEY, 

T. ROMEYN BECK, 

March 1, 1842. JOPIN A. DIX. 



A cursory examination of the English Grammar of Dr. Bullions, has 
satisfied me, that it has just claims on public ^avour. It is concise and 
simple ; the matter is well digested ; the exercises excellent, and the ty- 
pographical execution worthy of all praise. The subscriber takes plea* 
suie in recommending it to the notice of Teachers, and of all persons 
interested in education. ALONZO POTTER. 

Union College, Sept. 6, 1842. 



The English Grammar of the Rev. Dr. Bullions, appears to me, to be 
the best manual which has appeared as yet. With all the good points 
of Murray, it has additions and emendations, which I cannot but think 
would have commended themselves to Murray himself, and if I were a 
teacher of English Grammar, I would without hesitation prefer it to any 
other book of the kind, JAMES W. ALEXANDER, 

Professor of Belles Lettres, College of N. J. 

Princeton, Aug, 15, 1842 



Extract of a letter from Rev. Benjamin Hale, D.D., President oj Oe 

neva College N. Y. 

Rev. Dr. Bullions. — Dear Sir — I have lately procured a copy of your 

English Grammar, and given it such attention as my time has permitted, 

and I do not hesitate to express my conviction, that it is entitled to higher 



confidence than any other English Grammar in use among us, and my 
wish, that it may come into general use. I have seen enough to satisfy 
me, that you have diligently consulted the best sources, and combined 
your materials with discrimination and judgment. We have, as a facul- 
ty, recommended it by placing it on the list of books to be used by can 
didales in preparation for this college. I have personally recommended 
it, and will continue to recommend it, as I have opportunity. 

Very respectfully, dear sir, your friend, &c. 
BENJAMIN HALE. 
Geneva College, July 13, 1842. 



Extract of a letter from Rev. Cyrus Mason, D.D., Rector of the Grammar 
School in the University of New-York. 

University,' New-York, June 13th, 1842. 
Rev. Dr. Bullions. — Dear Sir — At the suggestion of the late Mr. 
Leckie, head classical master in the Grammar School, we began to in- 
troduce your grammars at the opening of the present year. We have 
made use chiefly of the Greek and English Grammar. The result thus 
far is a con victim that we have profited by the change, which I was 
very slow to make ; and I doubt not that our farther experience will con- 
firm the good opinion we entertain of your labors in this department of 
learning. Wishing you a large reward, I remain, very truly yours, 

— C. MASON, Rector. 

NOTICES FROM THE PUBLIC PRESS. 

From a Report presented to the Jefferson Co. Asso- 
ciation of Teachers, on the K?iglish Grammars now in 
use, the merits of each, and the best method of teaching 
them. By the Rev. J. R. Boyd, Principal of Black Ri- 
ver Institute. 

" 2. The Grammar by Prof. Bullions of the Albany Aca- 
demy, is constructed on the same plan as that of Brown ; 
and while it is not so copious in its exercises, nor so full in 
its observations upon the language, yet it is far more simple 
in its phraseology, more clear in its arrangement, more free 
perhaps from errors or things needing improvement, and at 
the same time contains all that is necessary to be learned in 
gaining a knowledge of the structure of our language. The 
Rules of Syntax and observations under them, are expressed 
generally in the best manner. The Verb is most vividly ex- 
plained, and that portion of the work contains much not to 
be found in other grammars, wdiile it judiciously omits a 
great deal to be found in them, that is unworthy of insertion. 
" It is excellent upon Prosody, and upon Poetic Diction 



and gives an admirable summary of directions for correct 
and elegant writing, and the different forms of composition. 
The typography of the book cannot be too highly commended 
— a circumstance that greatly affects the comfort and improve- 
ment of the learner. 

4t This grammar is equally well adapted to the beginner 
and to the advanced scholar. The course of instruction 
which Prof. B. recommends in the use of his grammar, 
seems wisely adapted to secure in the readiest manner the 
improvement of the pupil. The book is not so large as to 
appal the beginner, nor so small as to be of little use to those 
advanced. On the whole, in my judgment, no work has yet 
appeared, which presents equally high claims to general use. 
It is copious without redundancy — it is well printed, and 
forms a volume pleasing to the eye. It is lucid and simple, 
while in the main, it is philosophically exact. — Among the 
old Grammars, our decided preference is given to that of 
Prof. Bullions." 

[From the Albany ^rgus.] 

Principles of English Grammar. — This work besides containing a 
full system of grammar, is rendered more immediately useful for acade- 
mies and common schools, by containing copious examples in good gram- 
mar for parsing, and in bad grammar for correction ; and all of these are 
arranged directly under the rule to which they apply. Thus, instead of 
two books, which are required, (the grammar a»d the exercises,) the 
learner finds both in one, for a price at least not greater than the others. 

[From the Newburgh Journal.] 
Bullions' English Grammar. — It is not one of the smallest evils con- 
nected with our present system of common school education, that our 
schools are flooded with such a variety of books on elementary subjects, 
not only differing in arrangement, but frequently involving absurd and 
contradictory principles- And to no subject are these remarks more ap- 
plicable, than to English Grammar. And until some one elementary 
work of an approved character shall be generally introduced into our 
common schools, we despair of realizing a general proficiency in this 
important branch of education, It is with pleasure, therefore, that we 
witness the increasing popularity of " Bullions' English Grammar." 
From a familiar acquaintance with the work, from the publication of 
the first edition, we have no hesitation in pronouncing it the best Gram- 
mar with which we are acquainted. Tiie perspicuity of its definitions, 
the correctness of its principles, the symmetry of its arrangements, as 
well as the neat and accurate form in which it is presented, and withal 
tin cheapness of the work, are so many recommendations to its general use 



fFrom the Albany Evening Journal.] 

Professor Bullions' English Grammar is obviously the fruit of sound 
and enlightened judgment, patient labor and close reflection. It partakes 
of the character both of an original work and of a compilation. Fol- 
lowing the principles of Murray, and adopting in the main the plan of 
Lennie, the most distinguished of his successors, the aim of the author, 
as he states in his preface, has been to correct what is erroneous, to re- 
trench what is superfluous or unimportant, to compress what is prolix, to 
elucidate what is obscure, and to determine what is left doubtful, in the 
books already in use. In laboring to accomplish this excellent design, he 
has contrived to condense, in very perspicuous language, within the 
compass of a small, handsomely printed volume, about 200 pages, and 
costing but 50 cents, all that is requisite in this form to the acquisition 
of a thorough knowledge of the grammar of our language. It contains 
so great a number of exercises in parsing and syntax, judiciously inter- 
spersed, as to supersede the necessity of separate manuals of exercises 
now in use. Among other highly useful things to be found in this book, 
and not usually met with in works of this nature, are some very valua- 
ble critical remarks, and a pretty long " list of improper expressions," 
which unhappily have crept into use in different parts of our country. 
Under the head of Prosody, the author has, it is believed, given a bet- 
ter explanation of the principles of English versification, than is to be 
found in any other work of this nature in this country. In short, I 
hazard the prediction that this will be found to be decidedly the plainest, 
most perfect, and most useful manual of English grammar that has yet 
appeared. Z. 

EXTRACTS FROM LETTERS. 

The following, are extracts from letters from County Su- 
perintendents of Common Schools in the State of New-York, 
to whom copies of the work had been sent for examination. 
From Alexander Fonda, Esq. Dep. SupU of Com. Schools, Schenectady Co, 

Schenectady, March 30, 1842. 

Dear Sir — I acknowledge the receipt of a copy of your English 
Grammar, left upon my office desk yesterday afternoon. When in your 
city some three weeks since, I was presented with a copy by S, S. Ran- 
dall, Esq. ; from the examination I was enabled to give it, and from the 
opinion expressed in relation to it, by one of the oldest and most ex- 
perienced teachers of this county, to whom I presented it, as well as 
from the knowledge I possessed by reputation of its author, I had before 
I received the copy from you, determined to introduce it as far as I was 
able, as a class book in the schools of this county. 

From Chauncey Goodrich, Esq. Dep. Supt. of Com. Schools, Onondaga Co 

Canal, June 24, 1842. 
Dear Sir — Your favor of the 1st instant has just come to hand. The 
Grammar referred to has been received and examined. I am fully sa 
tisiied of its superior merits as a grammar for common schools, over any 



8 

other work I have seen. I shall take the earliest measures for its intro- 
duction into the schools under my supervision. 

From Roswell K. Bourne, Esq Dep. Supt. of Com. Schools, Chenango C* 

Pitcher, June 30. 1842, 

Dear Sir — Some time since I received a copy of a work on English gram, 
mar, by the Rev. Peter Bullions, D.D. for which I am much obliged. I 
have given the book as close an examination as circumstances would 
permit. The book is well got up, and exhibits the thorough acquaint- 
ance of the author with his subject. I think it well calculated for our 
common schools. 

From Garnsey Beach, Esq. Dep. Supt. of Common Schools, Putnam Co, 

Patterson, July 2, 1842. 

Dear Sir — Yours of the first ult, was received on Thursday last. As 
it respects your Grammar I have carefully examined it, and without en- 
tering into particulars, I consider it the best I have ever seen, and as 
such, I have recommended it to the several schools under my care. 
From O. W. Randall, Esq. Dep. Supt. of Common Schools, Oswego Co. 

Phoenix, July 2, 1842. 

Mr. P. Bullions, — Dear Sir — I have for the last two weeks devoted 
some considerable time, in perusing your system of English Grammar, 
and in reply to yours, requesting my views of the work, I can cheer- 
fully say, that its general arrangment, is admirably adapted either to the 
novice or adept. The § 27th and § 28th on verbs, with the attendant remarks, 
are highly important, and essential to the full completion of any system 
of grammar. The work taken together is remarkable for simplicity, 
lucidity and exactness, and is calculated not only to make the correct 
grammarian, but also a correct prosodian. Whatever may be its fate in 
the field, it enters with a large share of merit on its side, and with full 
as fair prospect of success as any work extant. 

From W. S. Preston, Esq. Dep- Supt. of Com Schoob, Suffolk Co. N. Y. 

Patchogue, L. I. July 6, 1842. 
Prof. P. Bullions, — Dear Sir — Some time since I received a copy of 
your English Grammar, for which I am much obliged. I have devoted 
as much time to its perusal as circumstances would permit, and can say 
of it, that I believe it claims decided pn rerence over the Grammars ge- 
nerally used in schools throughout this country, and indeed I may say, 
over the many works on that science extant. 

From James Henry, Esq. Dep. Supt. of Common Schools, Herkimer Co. 

Little-Falls, July 11, 1842. 
Prof. Bullions, — Sir — I have read with as much attention as my avo- 
cations w T ould allow, the work you had the kindness to send me, upon 
English Grammar, and so far as I am capable of forming an opinion of 
the merits of your book, I concur generally in the views expressed in 
the extract from the report of M Boyd, as contained in your circular. 



From V. H. Stevens, Dep. Supt. of Common Schools, Franklin Co, N. V. 

Moira, Aug. 27, 1842. 
Rev. P, Bullions, — Dear Sir — On Wednesday the 24th instant, the 
committee determined upon a series of books, and I have the happiness 
to inform you, that your English Grammar will be reported on the first 
Wednesday in October at the next meeting of the Association, as the 
most brief, perspicuous and philosophical work, upon that subject within 
our knowledge. 

From R. W. Finch, Esq, Dep. Supt. of Common Schools. Steuben Co. N. F* 

Bath, Sept. 11, 1842. 

Dear Sir — Having at length given your English Grammar a careful 
perusal ; and having compared it with all the modern works on the sub- 
ject, which have any considerable claims to merit, I am prepared to make 
a more enlightened decision, and one that is satisfactory to myself. The 
work has my decided preference. 

From J. W. Fairfield, and Cyrus Curtiss, Esqrs. Dep. Superintendents 
of Common Schools, Hudson, N, Y. 

Hudson, Sept. 15, 1842. 

Rev. P. Bullions, — Sir — We have examined a copy of your English 
Grammar, with reference to the introduction of the same into our pub- 
lic schools, and we take pleasure in saying that the examination has 
proved very satisfactory. We cannot, without occupying too much 
space, specify the particular points of excellence which we noticed in 
the arrangement of the different parts, the clearness of expression and 
illustration, and the precise adaptation of the Rules of Syntax, to the 
principles previously laid down. It is sufficient to say, that we believe 
it to be, in all the requisites of a good school book, superior to any other 
English Grammar which has come under our observation. 

II. THE PRINCIPLES OF LATIN GRAMMAR, &c. 

This work is upon the foundation of Adam's Latin Grammar, so long 
and so well known as a text book in this country. The object aimed at 
was to combine with all that is excellent in the work of Adam, the im- 
portant, results of subsequent labors in this field, — to correct errors and 
supply defects, — to bring the whole up to that point which the present 
state of classical learning requires, — and to give it such a form as to ren- 
der it a suitable part of the series. The following notices are furnished. 

From Rev. James W. Alexander, Prof. Belles Lettres in the College of 
New- Jersey. 

Princeton, N. J. Aug. 15, 1842. 

1 have examined with some care the Latin Grammar of the Rev. Dr. 
Bullions. It is, if I may hazard a judgment, a most valuable work, 
evincing that peculiar apprehension of the pupil's necessities, which 
nothing but long continued practice as an instructor can produce. Among 
our various Latin Grammars, it deserves the place which is occupied by 
the best ; and no teacher, as I think, need hesitate a moment about in 
troducing it 



10 

[From the Biblical Repertory, or Princeton Review, Jan. 1842. j 
The Principles of Latin Grammar, &c. — This completes the series 
proposed by the learned author, who has now furnished us with an Eng- 
lish, a Latin, and a Greek Grammar, which have this peculiar recom- 
mendation that they are arranged in the same order, and expressed in 
the same terms, so far as the differences of the languages permit. The 
basis of this manual is the well known Grammar of Adam, an excellent 
summary, but at the same time one which adm tted of retrenchment, ad- 
dition, and emendation, all which have been ably furnished by Dr. Bui 
lions- We have not made a business of perusing the work laboriously, 
but we have looked over the whole and bestowed particular attention on 
certain parts ; and therefore feel at liberty to recommend it with great 
confidence, especially to all such teachers as have been in the habit of 
using Adam's Grammar. 

III. THE PRINCIPLES OF GREEK GRAMMAR, See. 

The object of this publication was to provide a comprehensive manual 
of Greek Grammar, adapted to the use of the younger, as well as to the 
more advanced class of students in our schools and colleges, and espe- 
cially of those under the author's own care. To this end, the leading 
principles of Greek Grammar are exhibited in rules as few and brief as 
possible, so as to be easily committed to memory, and at the same time 
so comprehensive and perspicuous, as to be of general and easy application. 

The following notices of this work, from different sources, will show 
the estimate formed of it by competent judges. 

Bullions' Greek Grammar. — We have examined the second edition 
of Dr. Bullions' Greek Grammar, and consider it, upon the whole, the 
best grammar of the Greek language with which we are acquainted 
The parts to be committed to memory are both concise and comprehen 
sive ; the illustrations are full without prolixity, and the arrangement na- 
tural and judicious. The present edition is considerably reduced in size 
from the former, without, as we apprehend, at all impairing its value. 

It discovers in its compilation much labor and research, as well as 
sound judgment. We are persuaded that the general use of it in our 
grammar schools and academies would facilitate the acquisition of a 
thorough knowledge of the language. Judicious teachers pursuing the 
plan marked out by the author in his preface, would usually conduct 
their pupils to a competent knowledge of the language in a less time by 
several months than by the systems formerly in use. We therefore give 
it our cordial recommendation. ELIPHALET NOTT, 

R. PROUD FIT, 

Union College, December 19, 1840. ALONZO POTTER. 

Extract of a letter from Rev. Daniel D. Whedon, A.M. Professor of An- 
cient Languages and Literature, in the Wesleyan University, Middleton, Ct. 

Wesleyan University, March 29, 1842. 

Rev. Dr. Bullions, — Dear Sir — Although I have not the honor of 



11 

your personal acquaintance, I take the liberty of addressing to you my 
thanKs for your excellent Greek Grammar. Notwithstanding many 
personal, urgent, and interested appeals in favor of other grammars — and 
our literary market seems to abound with that kind of stock — the in- 
trinsic superiority of your manual over every rival, induced me, after I 
saw your last edition, to adopt it in the Greek department of the Wes- 
leyan University, and the success of my present Freshman class, amply 
justifies the course. 

Extract cf a letter from Henry Bannister, A.M. Principal of the Academy 
in Fairfield, N. Y. 

Fairfield Academy, May 12, 1842. 

Rev. Doct. Bullions, — Sir — Sometime since I received your English 
and Greek Grammar, of each, dfle copy ; and, if it is not too late, I 
would now return you my sincere thank*. I have not found in any work, 
suitable for a text book in schools, an analysis of the verb so strictly 
philosophical, and at the same time so easy to the learner to master and 
to retain when mastered, as that contained in your work. The editorial 
observations on government, and indeed the whole matter and arrange- 
ment of the Syntax, especially commend your work to general use in 

schools. 

[From the Princeton Review, for Jan. 1840.] 

It is with pleasu'-e we welcome a second edition of this manual, which 
we continue to regard as still unsurpassed by any similar work in our 
language. The typography and the quality of the paper are uncommon- 
ly good. We observe valuable additions and alterations. For all that we 
can see, everything worth knowing in Thiersch is here condensed into a 
few page^. We have certainly never seen the anatomy of the Greek 
verb so neatly demonstrated. The Syntax is full, and presents the lead- 
ing facts and principles, by rules, so as to be easily committed to mem- 
ory. To learners who are beginning the language, and especially to 
teachers of grammar schools, we earnestly recommend this book. 



[From the New- York Observer.] 
Bullions' Principles of Greek Grammar, &c. 2d edition. With 
pleasure we hail the second edition of this valuable work, and are happy 
to find that the revision which it has undergone has resulted in decided 
improvements. Formed, as it is, on the basis of that most symmetrical 
of all modern grammars. Dr. Moor's Greek Grammar, which its learned 
author never Jived to complete. It is now made to embrace not only the 
general rules, but all the minutiae essential to a critical knowledge of 
that ancient and elegant language. One of the chief excellencies of this 
model, and one that is fully retained in this grammar, is to be found in 
the simplicity, perspicuity, conciseness, and yet fulness of the definitions 
and rules for the various modifications of the language. The sense is 
clearly expressed, while scarcely a particle is used that could have been 
dispensed with. We have no hesitation in expressing the opinion, that 
Dr. B. has produced the most complete and useful Greek grammar that 
is to be found in the English language. 



12 
RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE SERIES. 

From the Rev. John Ludlow, D.D. Frowst of the University of Penn. 

No one I think can ever examine the series of Grammars published by 
Dr. Bullions, without a deep conviction of their superior excellence. 
When the English Grammar, the first in the series, was published in 
1834. it was my pleasure, in connexion with some honored individuals, 
in the city of Albany, to bear the highest testimony to its worth ; that 
testimony, if I mistake not, received the unanimous approval of all 
whose judgment can or ought to influence public opinion. I have seen, 
with great gratification, that the 2d and 3d in the series, the Latin and 
Greek, have met with the same favorable judgement, which I believe to 
be entirely deserved, and in which I do most heartily concur. 

From the Hon. Alfred Conkling, Judge of the United States Court in the 
Northern District of New- York, published in the Cayuga Patriot, 
Bullions' Series of Grammars. — By the recent publication of " The 
Principles of Latin Grammar," this series of grammars (English, Latin, 
and Greek.) is at length completed. To their preparation, Dr. Bullions 
has devoted many years of the best portion of his life. In the composi- 
tion of these books, he has shown an intimate acquaintance with the works 
of his ablest predecessors; and while upon the one hand, he has not scru- 
pled freely to avail himself of their labors, on the other hand, by studi- 
ously avoiding all that is objectionable in them, and by re-modelling, im- 
proving, and illustrating the rest, he has unquestionably succeeded in con- 
structing the best — decidedly the very best — grammar, in each of the 
three above named languages, that has yet appeared. Such is the deli- 
berate and impartial judgment which has been repeatedly expressed by 
the most competent judges, respecting the English and Greek grammars ; 
and such, I hesitate not to believe, will be the judgment formed of the 
Latin grammar. But independently of the superiority of these works 
separately considered, they possess, collectively, the great additional re- 
commendation of having their leading parts arranged in the same order, 
and, as far as properly can be done, expressed in the same language. An 
acquaintance with one of them, therefore, cannot fail greatly to facilitate 
the study of another, and at the same time, by directing the attention of 
the student distinctly to the points of agreement and of difference in the 
several languages, to render his acquisitions more accurate, and at the 
same time to give him clearer and more comprehensive views of the 
general principles of language. The importance of using in academies 
and schools of the United States none but ably written and unexcep 
tionable school books, is incalculable ; and without intending unnecessa- 
rily to depreciate the labors of others, as a friend of sound education, I 
cannot refrain from expressing an earnest hope of seeing this series of 
grammars in general use. They are all beautifully printed on very good 
paper, and are sold at very reasonable prices. 



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